Wide ranging business resolution

There is no denying the fact that the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development was acknowledged in 1964 as an unwavering member of the General Assembly to buttress global trade, in particular the export trade of just beginning countries to pick up the pace of the economic development programme of those countries. Those countries actually craving to deal with development issues in a specially created body. It is their conviction that their development problems could not be attempted successfully through active worldwide economic institute due to fact that those countries influencing interrelated business activities were dominated by urbanized countries. Its objectives were to help to attain agreement on the stabilisation of commodity prices, investment, trade preferences and compensatory financing programmes. UNCTAD has long been served as a mouthpiece of the world’s poor and has been a central forum for the North- South dialogue. Although in its long existence it has taken up many issues for encouraging the interest of developing countries, but for some reasons it has changed its role considerably. UNCTAD is doing its business facing the reality of present international economic structure. It is very much necessary for the developing countries to fortify and make it resourceful. UNCTAD conferences from 1964 to 1996 make public that the Third World has transformed their situation significantly. In their first conference in 1964 the developing countries banded together to form the Group of 77 as a coalition of the world’s poor to press for concession from the rich. In UNCTAD 6, 1983 the recognition of the importance of the role of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as multilateral development institution was made. In UNCTAD 8 in 1992 there was a broad consensus on importance of market oriented economic policies and political pluralism as basis for development. Most important decision was the reform and revitalisation of UNCTAD to ensure its continuing relevance on trade and development issues. The issues addressed in the UNCTAD forum have changed over time in response to changing international circumstances. Some of the causes will be described below. One state one vote ethics of General Assembly gives the Third World nations advantages in the UN forums. Those who are the highest contributors to the UN command only fifteen votes. For that reason the North prefers small forums, usually outside the General Assembly. Indeed, in view of the charter of UN follows the one state one vote principle not weighted voting system like the IMF and the World Bank, so the North states reluctant to the activities of the UN General Assembly which has some influence on UNCTAD. 2) The major powers of the North made it clear that they were only prepared to deal with key economic problems of the South through the Bretton Woods’s institutions and WTO, which were fully under their control. In our country we have optimistic view in the sense that progressively more, thus, the developing countries, especially those with heavy balance burdens, were both nudged and drawn into embrace of these multilateral financial institutions. This is an important reason for which UNCTAD has changed. The Third World nation’s different level of development, different degrees of economic and political affiliation with the North, different colonial familiarity and different discernment of national interests have created diversified attitude towards North. That may also be a reason for change in UNCTAD. 4) The closing stages of cold war, the earth-shattering alteration in East West relations and the end of bloc politics modified the North- South relation, which has impact on UNCTAD activities. 5) In 1980’s the economic growth rate deteriorated in many Third world countries. The prices of the commodities exported by Third World nations fell sharply compared with the prices they had to pay for their imports. The debt burden of many Third World countries reduced their bargaining power. The erosion of their bargaining leverage added to the softening of its militancy and increased reluctance to fight against North. The changing economic climate of the 1980’s affected different countries in different way which created diversity within the Third World countries and affected the role of UNCTAD. 6) UNCTAD was subjected to increasing financial pressure, which affected programmes, performance, staffing morale and independence of the body. 7) The creation of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) has important impact on the change in UNCTAD’s role. Although UNCTAD’s attitude towards Bretton Woods institutions and WTO has changed, but despite economic and political transformations in the world in the last thirty years, the essence of UNCTAD’s development mission has not changed. Although in recent years little has been achieved through UNCTAD in the area of consultation and negotiation on general economic issues, but negotiations in UNCTAD sometimes provide a starting point for concrete decisions elsewhere, and the organisation continues to play an important role as a forum for the discussion of development issues and a centre for the study of the problems facing developing Countries. The themes addressed by it over the years have include: a) The issue of expanding and diversifying the exports of goods and services of developing countries, which are the main sources of external finance for their development; b) The issue of expanding the export capacity of developing countries by mobilising domestic and external resources, including development assistance and foreign investment; c) Issue of strengthening technical capabilities and promoting appropriate national policies; d) Issue of alleviating the impact of debt on the economies of developing countries and reducing their debt burden’s) Issue of supporting expansion of trade and economic co-operation among developing countries as a beneficial complement to their traditional economic linkages with developed countries and f) issue of special measures in support of the world’s poorest and most vulnerable countries. It may be mentioned here that UNCTAD has become at once a negotiating instrument, a deliberative forum, a generator of new ideas and concepts and a provider of technical assistance. As a result of this multifaceted mandate, UNCTAD was entrusted with a wide spectrum of activities cutting across several dimensions of development.

The role of UNCTAD in the context of International Business Solutions

There is no denying the fact that, as UNCTAD’s mandate has become multidimensional, so its achievements have therefore been of different kinds. The most significant achievements included. a) the agreement on Generalised System of Preferences(GSP)1971; b) the setting up of the Global System of Trade Preferences among developing Countries(1989); c) negotiation of International Commodity Agreements; d) the establishment of transparent market mechanisms in the form of intergovernmental commodity expert and study groups, involving consumers and producers; e) the negotiation of the Common Fund for Commodities(1989); f) the adoption of the resolution on the retroactive adjustment of terms of Official Development Assistance(ODA) debt of low-income developing countries; g) the establishment of guidelines for international action in the area of debt rescheduling(1980); h) the Programme of Action for Least Developed Countries for the 1990s(1990) and I) the negotiation of convention in the area of maritime transport. In addition to above UNCTAD made some contributions on matters for implementation in other forums. For case in point, it has role in the improvement of the Imp’s compensatory facility for export earnings shortfalls of developing countries; the creation of the Special Drawing Rights (SDR) by IMF; the reduction of commercial bank debt for the highly indebted countries promoted by the World Bank. UNCTAD had also some contribution in the area of code of conduct for the transfer of technology, computerised systems in the area of customs and debt management. Although for many limitations as I mentioned earlier UNCTAD could not fulfil all expectations but it has tried and still trying with its limited resources to do its work. For the cause of the developing countries the role of UNCTAD should be strengthen. To make it more dynamic and effective some measures should be taken like as follows: a) The Third World countries should minimise their differences and have to sacrifice their own interest for the sake of other developing countries. It will be easier for UNCTAD to work in a co-operative atmosphere than of conflict. b) UNCTAD should give emphasis those issues in which it possesses considerable expertise. Here the proposal is not to alter its earlier position, but to focus more strongly on specific matters which are covered little if at all by other organisations. In trade field UNCTAD should give importance on consensus building. As UNCTAD provides a universal forum for policy analysis, so for consensus on trade policy issue it can help to prepare ground for later negotiations within WTO. UNCTAD and WTO should co-operate with each other in the field of international trade. It is encouraging that two organisation has already started their co-operation. In their joint meeting held in 8th Oct. 1996 WTO Director General said “the convergence between WTO and UNCTAD was evidenced in regular meetings between the heads of the two organisations, joint research projects, co-ordinated technical assistance and generally a more intense working relationship at all levels of the organisations.” As the main functions of WTO are the implementation and negotiation of contractual trading rules and discipline, there is considerable scope for complimentarily between WTO and UNCTAD.The policy analysis and consensus building functions of UNCTAD can make essential contribution to the intergovernmental consideration of trade issues to the point where they can be fruitfully negotiated in WTO. d) In post cold war economic environment, the need for collective action by the Third World countries to meet the evolving challenges is more important than ever. UNCTAD is the only body in the UN which has some scope to deal with global economic issues from a development perspective. UNCTAD should be equipped for that purpose. e) UNCTAD’s monitoring and analytical capacities should be increased sufficiently. f) Its efficiency in the area of foreign investment, technology transfer, competition policy regarding Multinational Corporation should be strengthening. g) UNCTAD should prepare its answer for Third World country regarding liberalisation and regional groupings. Since it has been reorganised to make it more efficient, there is no need to dismantle it. Because it still serves a primary purpose to achieve international co-operation in solving international problems of an economic nature. And UNCTAD is the only organisation in the world which gives the impression of being trade and development in an integrated way which is very important.

Internet Interface

An ideal Intranet atmosphere In recent times I have gone through an article on intranet where it has been reflected in the sense that an artistic method feasible to intranet can be put side by side to a composition process where we can endeavor to construct the roof of the house before we place the underpinning, and we may facade somber problems. Let us dispense the concrete for the foundation of the house before we put in the necessary plumbing for water and sewer access, and have to spend more money than we bulldoze for. We can build a house one footstep at a time and as such we can make certain the house which has a strong foundation. Buildings with strong nitty-gritty tending to a certain period. When we have more or less done with the frame of the house, we build a roof. Although the roof of the house is the top of the structure, we do not stop there. It takes more than a covered frame to make a house. We hire an electrician to do the wiring and bring back the plumber to finish the plumbing. Afterward, we hang plaster board, add insulation, finish the exterior, add fixtures, and before we know it, we have a house that we can call home. We build an intranet in the same way, one step at a time. We can initiate on the intranet is about as glamorous as the water and sewer pipes waiting for the foundation to be poured around them; for just when we are ready to roll back our sleeves and dive into the intranet creation process with both feet, we might discover we need to conduct research, planning, or consider the requirements of the intranet. When we finally flesh out the foundation of the intranet, we start to build the framework. The basic components of any intranet are the hardware and software that make it work. The hardware used in the intranet is focused to determine the way the intranet is operated. The software our intranet uses will determine what the intranet is used for. Eventually, we finish designing the intranet, but find we still have to develop the hot Java-powered applications for the intranet. Even when we have completed the design and development processes, the intranet still is not over and done with in order to check the structure of the work for flaws. We make sure we have used the right structure and created the best tools. Once all this is done, we finally have an intranet worthy of the CEO's wholehearted embrace. Try to build the whole house at once and we will be overwhelmed. The same is true for any creative process. When we are building our intranet and its applications, we need to manage many things on a level of general organization and on a more specific level. If we mismanage expectations, our intranet might not turn out as we plan. Our potential anticipation and the opportunity of our superiors might be totally different. Before we start to design the intranet and the Java-powered applications for the intranet, make sure our prospect and the expectations of our administrator network. A good way to do this is to ensure that the infrastructure channels are open and used. To make certain that our scheme is a devastating success; we should argue outlook throughout the progress of the intranet, principally as we develop our intranet applications. If we develop a rapid prototype of key applications, our superiors should be the ones to verify that the designs meet their expectations. If the model does not meet their outlook, maybe the prototypes were an example of what not to do, or maybe the expectations of management are unrealistic. If our prototypes meet or exceed the expectations of our superiors, we have a green light and our project is well on its way to a successful implementation. We should also manage our personal expectations for the intranet and its applications. Our expectations play a major role in the success of the intranet. Realistic expectations ensure the success of our intranet. If we perceive the intranet as an impossibly large undertaking, we might cripple by virtue of wide range of knowledge in this regard. If we perceive the intranet as a trivial undertaking, we will not produce the best possible structure and tools for our organization. It is best to find a balance in our perceptions about the intranet. As we begin to design the intranet, keep in mind that the intranet creation process is a team effort. Few individuals will be able to handle all aspects of creating the intranet and its applications. For this reason, we should have an accurate perception of our abilities and know when it is in the best interest of the project to delegate tasks. Generating an intranet is exhilarating and demanding and as such we have to break a new ground, making efforts for new things, and carry out research work with a new-fangled request. Managing the intranet is the creation of an amazing process in whatever way some one will motivate us. If one way of thinking about the intranet is not motivating we, change tactics. Do whatever it takes to get the job done. We do not limit a few strategies or stick with one strategy when it obviously is not working. Make a list of strategies. If one strategy is not working, switch to a new one. If we do not have a new one, create a new one. The strategy we use can be very basic. A great strategy to start with is to plan to work on the project every day until it is completed. In addition to this strategy, we should add planning to involve both management and users in the development process. The degree of participation for management and users might need to be adjusted throughout the development process. Our role in the project should be a part of our strategy. Initially, we might want to work closely with the development team. Later, we might discover that our best role is to manage the development at a higher level. Or if we are the top programmer or network administrator, we might find that we need to work on application design rather than the actual programming. Adapting our role as necessary can help the project flourishing. When we start working on the intranet design and creation process, one of the first things we should do is develop goals. Our goals should take into consideration the complexities and nuances of the intranet we plan to develop for our organization. Goals should be clear and relevant to the problem at hand. Set major goals relevant to the purpose, scope, and audience of the intranet. Also, set minor goals or milestones for the stages of the intranet development and its applications. Goals and milestones help define the intranet development process as a series of steps or achievements. One major goal could be to complete the planning of the intranet; another major goal could be to complete the design of the intranet. The series of steps necessary to complete the major goals are the minor goals or milestones. Our first milestone will be to start work on the intranet. Another milestone might be to select and purchase the necessary intranet software, such as Web server software, browser software, and a Java Development environment. Our goals are to complete the major steps of the development process, such as planning and design. In designing a constructive intranet system, the intranet designer may create or provide rules that pertain specifically to the intranet's law or scope of control, such as the Information Systems department that will have overall responsibility for the intranet after completion. As we start to create the intranet, these rules might seem perfectly acceptable. However, as we conduct planning for the intranet and its applications, we might find that the overall responsibility of the intranet should be divided amongst the departments that will set up intranet servers. If these early rules cannot be modified to fit the current situation, we will have problems. We might encounter delays due to loss of efficiency or the final product might not be what was expected. No rule should ever be considered absolutely and even the best of rules should be interpreted as guidelines that can vary depending on the situation. Rules for a complex project like our intranet should be flexible and make sense. A rule that conflicts with something we are trying to do should be reexamined. The rule might be inappropriate for the situation we are trying to apply it and as such our intranet will never be put into action if we avoid working on it. Putting off work until something is due is a poor practice. Relinquish when things do not go our way or when we seem to have a block is another poor practice. Even if we flourish on cut-off date, sketch to work toward intranet's goals and milestones regularly-every day if necessary and possible. We should also plan to work on the intranet and its applications during those times when our thoughts are not flowing. Everyone has bad days and good days. Some days we take more breaks. Some days we work straight through the day and into the night. We might tend toward other destructive behavior besides avoiding or putting off work. Sometimes programmers go to the opposite extreme. They tear things apart impulsively before letting the work cool off so they can look at it objectively. Never hack our code just because a few users didn't like our application's interface. Managing the aspects of the intranet's design and creation is only the beginning. The next step is to determine the best organization for our intranet. Over the years, three models have developed for information systems like our intranet: centralized, decentralized, and a combination of centralized and decentralized. The three computing models are really driven by the types of computers in use at an organization. Following the centralized model, all computer resources are centered in one location and under the management of one organization. When we think of centralized computing, think of mainframes and computer centers. With the introduction of file server and client server computing, most organizations moved away from the centralized model toward a decentralized model. In decentralized computing, computer resources are spread throughout the organization and under the management of the departments in which the computers are located. When we think of decentralized computing, think of the high-power workstations and servers. After the big move to decentralize computer resources and dismantle massive computer centers, many managers had a rude awakening to the anarchy decentralized computing can cause. Let us imagine an organization where each department sets the rules and decides the standards, like what hardware and software to purchase and how that hardware and software should be set up. Then imagine the nightmare of trying to support the gauntlet of software and hardware installed throughout an organization the size of AT&T. Because of a lack of control with decentralized computing, many organizations are moving to the happy middle ground of a mixed computing model. In this mixed model, a centralized Information Systems management sets broad policy, such as the direction and purpose of key computing initiatives, and the individual departments are free to work within those guidelines. As we thrash out the accomplishment of the intranet with management, we should consider keeping the three working out models in mind. While our organization might currently use a specific model, we can apply any of the models to the design of our intranet and should egg on administration to prefer the mock-up that wills finest hand round our institute. In an ideal world, the concluding pronouncement will be based on the necessary responsibility and control of the intranet resources. Subsequent a centralized model, a specific department within the organization will be responsible for the intranet. This identical division will be accountable for the setup, design, and administration of our intranet servers. The department will also be responsible for creating the necessary publications and applications based on user requests. With a centralized model, there will usually be a formal approval process for new publications, applications and services. This means that if the Human Resources department wanted an application to track employee files, a formal request would be required. Once the request is approved, the intranet developers would work with Human Resources to create the application. The problem with centralized control and formal approval processes is that they put creativity and timeliness in thumbscrews. Following a decentralized model, each department within the organization is responsible for its section of the intranet. All departments that want to create intranet services will have to set up, design and administer their own intranet servers. Each department will also be responsible for creating the publications and applications used by the department. When we can draw on a decentralized model, we hack out the prescribed endorsement procedure for new publications, applications, and services. This means anyone can create intranet resources. Greater freedom and few controls means that new services can be set up quickly by anyone who wants to set them up. This freedom and lack of controls can also lead to abuse of the intranet resources. When someone publishes potentially offensive material or when the usefulness of the intranet deteriorates because so much junk has been created? By adopting elements of both the centralized and decentralized model that fit the needs of the organization, we might be able to balance the need for strict control with our artistic self-determination. For paradigm, we could create an intranet with a centralized Web server that links together departmental servers. The IS staff would be responsible for maintaining the central server and updating links to resources throughout the organization. The individual departments would be responsible for maintaining their own servers. To ensure the intranet is not abused, one person within each department could be responsible for that department's intranet resources. The real stars on our intranet are the applications we plan to develop. Still, we will need content for our intranet. Most of our content will be in the form of hypertext documents that are served by our Web server and displayed by our chosen Web browser. As we consider the type of content we want to publish on our intranet, think about how we will organize that content. We can organize hypertext documents in many ways. The structure that is best for a particular document depends on the complexity of the material we plan to present. For a small document with limited complexity, a simple structure is often best. Simple structures include linear and linear with alternative paths. The simplest way to structure a hypertext document is in a linear fashion. Using a pure linear structure, we can create a hypertext publication with a structure resembling a traditional print publication. Readers move forward and backward in sequence through the pages of the publication. An alternative path structure gives readers more options or paths through a document. By providing alternative paths, we make the structure of the publication more flexible. Instead of being able to move only forward and backward through the publication, readers can follow a branch from the main path. In a linear structure the branches will rejoin the main path at some point. The hierarchical structure is the most logical structure for a publication of moderate complexity. In this structure, we organize the publication into a directory tree. Readers can navigate through the publication, moving from one level of the publication to the next, more detailed, level of the publication. They can also go up the tree from the detailed level to a higher level and possibly jump to the top level. The information bank tree intimately look a lot like the way we store files on our hard drive in a main directory with subdirectories leading to files. We could also think of the hierarchy as a representation of an actual tree. If we invert the tree, the trunk of the tree would be the top level of the publication. The trunk could be the overview of the publication. The large boughs leading from the trunk would be the next level of the document structure. The boughs could be chapter overview pages. Branches leading from the boughs would be the next level, or the pages within chapters. A combined linear and hierarchical structure is one of the most used forms for hypertext publications. This is because it is an extremely flexible, but still highly structured method. Readers can move forward and backward through individual pages. They can navigate through the various levels of the publication by moving up a level or descending to the next level. They can also follow parallel paths through the document. The most complex structuring method is the integrated web. This method lets the reader follow multiple paths from many options. This is a good method to use when we want the reader to be able to browse or wander many times through the publication we have created. Each time through the publication, readers will probably discover something new. After considering the various styles for hypertext documents, we should examine the various tools we will need to develop the intranet. A tool is anything that supports the task we are working on. The tools for unleashing the power of our intranet are based on the existing tools for the Internet itself, which includes protocols, resource tools, and information services. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol) is the foundation of the worldwide Internet. We must install TCP/IP on our network to enable intranet services. A protocol is a set of rules for programs communicating on the network. It specifies how the programs talk to each other and what meaning to give to the data they receive. Without TCP/IP setting the rules for our network communications, we cannot use Internet technologies. The good news is that if our organization already has access to the World Wide Web; we might already have the necessary TCP/IP structure in place. Additionally, TCP/IP is built in to some operating systems, including Windows 95, Windows NT, and most variants of UNIX. If we have an operating system where TCP/IP is not built in and do not have TCP/IP installed, we will need to purchase TCP/IP software. Fortunately, TCP/IP software is widely available from software vendors. An intranet without Web services is like a world without water. The key to the World Wide Web is the hypertext transfer protocol. HTTP offers a means of moving from document to document, or of indexing within documents. Accessing documents published on our intranet involves communications between browsers and servers. In a browser, such as the Netscape Navigator, the HTTP processes are virtually transparent to the user. All the user really has to do is activate links to move through our Web presentation. The browser takes care of interpreting the hypertext transfer commands and communicating requests. The mechanism on the receiving end, which is processing the requests, is a program called the Hypertext Transfer Protocol Daemon (HTTP). A daemon is a UNIX term for a program that runs in the background and handles requests. The HTTP daemon resides on our Web server. Before setting up or installing server software, we must determine what platform the Web server will run on. Until recently, our choices were limited, but this changed rapidly as the World Wide Web grew in popularity. Today, Web server software and server management tools are available for almost every platform. And, like other software developed for use on the Internet, this software is available as freeware, shareware, and commercial software. We will find that UNIX platforms have the most options for server software. Until recently, there was only one good choice for the Windows NT environment, but this has changed. There are now many excellent commercial and freeware choices for Windows NT. For other platforms, there is generally only one choice in server software. Having only one choice of server software for the Windows system which doesn't mean the quality of the server software is poor. Quite the contrary, the quality of the software is often quite good. Tools are an essential part of any operation. Resource tools provide the means for sending and retrieving information. There are three basic tools of intranet working: Electronic mail is a great way to communicate. Think of e-mail as a way to send letters to anyone within the company instantly. Many e-mail programs enable delivery of mail to single users or groups of users. Some e-mail programs even provide ways to automate responses. Most browser packages are packaged with e-mail software. File transfer protocol provides the basic means for delivering and retrieving files around the network. The files can be text, sound, or graphics. FTP provides a springboard for many information-based approaches to retrieving information. Many higher level tools that have friendlier interfaces use FTP or a protocol similar to FTP to transfer files. Just about every browser currently available supports FTP. Telnet lets our intensive log into another system and browse files and directories on that remote system. Telnet is valuable because it is easy to use and basic to the network. When we telnet to another computer, we can issue commands as if we were typing on the other computer's keyboard. On some platforms, like UNIX, telnet is a built-in resource. On other platforms, we will need a telnet tool. The basic resource tools are indispensable when used for the purpose that they were designed for. They even provide the fundamental basis for many high-level resource tools, but they simply weren't designed for the advanced manipulation of the wealth of information available on the Internet. This is why dozens of information resource tools have been designed to manipulate networked data. At this juncture, there will be a list of high-level resource tools we might want to use on our intranet: A system to automatically gather, index, and serve information on the Internet. Archie is a great tool for searching our intranet's file archives. Once we set up Archie services, users can access Archie resources with their browser. A distributed information service that enables us to move easily through complex webs of network resources. Gopher uses a simple protocol that enables a Gopher client to access information on any accessible Gopher server. Most browsers directly support Gopher. An automated mailing list distribution system. Users can subscribe to LISTSERV lists we set up on the intranet, which enables them to read e-mail posted to the list or to post e-mail to the list. Once we set up a LISTSERV server, users can join lists and participate in lists using standard Internet e-mail software. Most browser packages include e-mail software. A bulletin board system of discussion groups called newsgroups. Users can participate in newsgroups posting messages to the group and can read messages posted by other newsgroup members. Once we set up a newsgroup server, users can browse newsgroups and post information to newsgroups using a newsgroup reader. Most browser packages include a newsgroup reader. A distributed information service for searching databases located throughout the network. It offers indexed searching for fast retrieval and an excellent feedback mechanism that enables the results of initial searches to influence later searches. WAIS servers are best accessed via CGI scripts, which allow users to search databases using their browser. Using HTML development tools, we can quickly and easily create HTML documents for our intranet. HTML editors have features similar to our favorite word processor and enable us to easily create documents in HTML format. Typically, these editors enable us to select HTML elements from a pull-down menu. The menu has brief descriptions of elements we can add to the document. The editor places the element in the document in the proper format, which frees us from having to memorize the format. When creating complex forms, we 'all find HTML editors especially useful. HTML templates enable us to add the functionality of an HTML editor to our favorite word processor. The great thing about templates is that we can use all the word processor's features, which could include checking grammar and spelling. In view of the above, it is evident; knowledge on the structure blocks for creating a perfect intranet is only the first step toward implementing our intranet. Our intranet will require content, which can be well thought-out in a diversity of approach and shaped with a variety of co-worker applications. We will also necessitate setting up basic networking protocols, like TCP/IP, and services like the WWW. Once we have selected the basic tools we have to create the intranet and measured how we will organize it, we can chart it all the way through achievement. More importantly, we 'all are using the familiar features of our word processor to add HTML formatting to our documents. Although the task of creating HTML code is fairly complex, some helper applications called converters try to automate the task. HTML converters convert our favorite document formats into HTML code and vice versa. At the touch of a button, we could transform a Word for Windows file into an HTML document. Converters are especially useful if we 're converting simple documents and are less useful when we 're exchanging documents with complex law its. In recent times I have gone through an article on intranet where it has been reflected in the sense that an artistic method feasible to intranet can be put side by side to a composition process where we can endeavor to construct the roof of the house before we place the underpinning, and we may facade somber problems. Let us dispense the concrete for the foundation of the house before we put in the necessary plumbing for water and sewer access, and have to spend more money than we bulldoze for. We can build a house one footstep at a time and as such we can make certain the house which has a strong foundation. Buildings with strong nitty-gritty tending to a certain period. When we have more or less done with the frame of the house, we build a roof. Although the roof of the house is the top of the structure, we do not stop there. It takes more than a covered frame to make a house. We hire an electrician to do the wiring and bring back the plumber to finish the plumbing. Afterward, we hang plaster board, add insulation, finish the exterior, add fixtures, and before we know it, we have a house that we can call home. We build an intranet in the same way, one step at a time. We can initiate on the intranet is about as glamorous as the water and sewer pipes waiting for the foundation to be poured around them; for just when we are ready to roll back our sleeves and dive into the intranet creation process with both feet, we might discover we need to conduct research, planning, or consider the requirements of the intranet. When we finally flesh out the foundation of the intranet, we start to build the framework. The basic components of any intranet are the hardware and software that make it work. The hardware used in the intranet is focused to determine the way the intranet is operated. The software our intranet uses will determine what the intranet is used for. Eventually, we finish designing the intranet, but find we still have to develop the hot Java-powered applications for the intranet. Even when we have completed the design and development processes, the intranet still is not over and done with in order to check the structure of the work for flaws. We make sure we have used the right structure and created the best tools. Once all this is done, we finally have an intranet worthy of the CEO's wholehearted embrace. Try to build the whole house at once and we will be overwhelmed. The same is true for any creative process. When we are building our intranet and its applications, we need to manage many things on a level of general organization and on a more specific level. If we mismanage expectations, our intranet might not turn out as we plan. Our potential anticipation and the opportunity of our superiors might be totally different. Before we start to design the intranet and the Java-powered applications for the intranet, make sure our prospect and the expectations of our administrator network. A good way to do this is to ensure that the infrastructure channels are open and used. To make certain that our scheme is a devastating success; we should argue outlook throughout the progress of the intranet, principally as we develop our intranet applications. If we develop a rapid prototype of key applications, our superiors should be the ones to verify that the designs meet their expectations. If the model does not meet their outlook, maybe the prototypes were an example of what not to do, or maybe the expectations of management are unrealistic. If our prototypes meet or exceed the expectations of our superiors, we have a green light and our project is well on its way to a successful implementation. We should also manage our personal expectations for the intranet and its applications. Our expectations play a major role in the success of the intranet. Realistic expectations ensure the success of our intranet. If we perceive the intranet as an impossibly large undertaking, we might cripple by virtue of wide range of knowledge in this regard. If we perceive the intranet as a trivial undertaking, we will not produce the best possible structure and tools for our organization. It is best to find a balance in our perceptions about the intranet. As we begin to design the intranet, keep in mind that the intranet creation process is a team effort. Few individuals will be able to handle all aspects of creating the intranet and its applications. For this reason, we should have an accurate perception of our abilities and know when it is in the best interest of the project to delegate tasks. Generating an intranet is exhilarating and demanding and as such we have to break a new ground, making efforts for new things, and carry out research work with a new-fangled request. Managing the intranet is the creation of an amazing process in whatever way some one will motivate us. If one way of thinking about the intranet is not motivating we, change tactics. Do whatever it takes to get the job done. We do not limit a few strategies or stick with one strategy when it obviously is not working. Make a list of strategies. If one strategy is not working, switch to a new one. If we do not have a new one, create a new one. The strategy we use can be very basic. A great strategy to start with is to plan to work on the project every day until it is completed. In addition to this strategy, we should add planning to involve both management and users in the development process. The degree of participation for management and users might need to be adjusted throughout the development process. Our role in the project should be a part of our strategy. Initially, we might want to work closely with the development team. Later, we might discover that our best role is to manage the development at a higher level. Or if we are the top programmer or network administrator, we might find that we need to work on application design rather than the actual programming. Adapting our role as necessary can help the project flourishing. When we start working on the intranet design and creation process, one of the first things we should do is develop goals. Our goals should take into consideration the complexities and nuances of the intranet we plan to develop for our organization. Goals should be clear and relevant to the problem at hand. Set major goals relevant to the purpose, scope, and audience of the intranet. Also, set minor goals or milestones for the stages of the intranet development and its applications. Goals and milestones help define the intranet development process as a series of steps or achievements. One major goal could be to complete the planning of the intranet; another major goal could be to complete the design of the intranet. The series of steps necessary to complete the major goals are the minor goals or milestones. Our first milestone will be to start work on the intranet. Another milestone might be to select and purchase the necessary intranet software, such as Web server software, browser software, and a Java Development environment. Our goals are to complete the major steps of the development process, such as planning and design. In designing a constructive intranet system, the intranet designer may create or provide rules that pertain specifically to the intranet's law or scope of control, such as the Information Systems department that will have overall responsibility for the intranet after completion. As we start to create the intranet, these rules might seem perfectly acceptable. However, as we conduct planning for the intranet and its applications, we might find that the overall responsibility of the intranet should be divided amongst the departments that will set up intranet servers. If these early rules cannot be modified to fit the current situation, we will have problems. We might encounter delays due to loss of efficiency or the final product might not be what was expected. No rule should ever be considered absolutely and even the best of rules should be interpreted as guidelines that can vary depending on the situation. Rules for a complex project like our intranet should be flexible and make sense. A rule that conflicts with something we are trying to do should be reexamined. The rule might be inappropriate for the situation we are trying to apply it and as such our intranet will never be put into action if we avoid working on it. Putting off work until something is due is a poor practice. Relinquish when things do not go our way or when we seem to have a block is another poor practice. Even if we flourish on cut-off date, sketch to work toward intranet's goals and milestones regularly-every day if necessary and possible. We should also plan to work on the intranet and its applications during those times when our thoughts are not flowing. Everyone has bad days and good days. Some days we take more breaks. Some days we work straight through the day and into the night. We might tend toward other destructive behavior besides avoiding or putting off work. Sometimes programmers go to the opposite extreme. They tear things apart impulsively before letting the work cool off so they can look at it objectively. Never hack our code just because a few users didn't like our application's interface. Managing the aspects of the intranet's design and creation is only the beginning. The next step is to determine the best organization for our intranet. Over the years, three models have developed for information systems like our intranet: centralized, decentralized, and a combination of centralized and decentralized. The three computing models are really driven by the types of computers in use at an organization. Following the centralized model, all computer resources are centered in one location and under the management of one organization. When we think of centralized computing, think of mainframes and computer centers. With the introduction of file server and client server computing, most organizations moved away from the centralized model toward a decentralized model. In decentralized computing, computer resources are spread throughout the organization and under the management of the departments in which the computers are located. When we think of decentralized computing, think of the high-power workstations and servers. After the big move to decentralize computer resources and dismantle massive computer centers, many managers had a rude awakening to the anarchy decentralized computing can cause. Let us imagine an organization where each department sets the rules and decides the standards, like what hardware and software to purchase and how that hardware and software should be set up. Then imagine the nightmare of trying to support the gauntlet of software and hardware installed throughout an organization the size of AT&T. Because of a lack of control with decentralized computing, many organizations are moving to the happy middle ground of a mixed computing model. In this mixed model, a centralized Information Systems management sets broad policy, such as the direction and purpose of key computing initiatives, and the individual departments are free to work within those guidelines. As we thrash out the accomplishment of the intranet with management, we should consider keeping the three working out models in mind. While our organization might currently use a specific model, we can apply any of the models to the design of our intranet and should egg on administration to prefer the mock-up that wills finest hand round our institute. In an ideal world, the concluding pronouncement will be based on the necessary responsibility and control of the intranet resources. Subsequent a centralized model, a specific department within the organization will be responsible for the intranet. This identical division will be accountable for the setup, design, and administration of our intranet servers. The department will also be responsible for creating the necessary publications and applications based on user requests. With a centralized model, there will usually be a formal approval process for new publications, applications and services. This means that if the Human Resources department wanted an application to track employee files, a formal request would be required. Once the request is approved, the intranet developers would work with Human Resources to create the application. The problem with centralized control and formal approval processes is that they put creativity and timeliness in thumbscrews. Following a decentralized model, each department within the organization is responsible for its section of the intranet. All departments that want to create intranet services will have to set up, design and administer their own intranet servers. Each department will also be responsible for creating the publications and applications used by the department. When we can draw on a decentralized model, we hack out the prescribed endorsement procedure for new publications, applications, and services. This means anyone can create intranet resources. Greater freedom and few controls means that new services can be set up quickly by anyone who wants to set them up. This freedom and lack of controls can also lead to abuse of the intranet resources. When someone publishes potentially offensive material or when the usefulness of the intranet deteriorates because so much junk has been created? By adopting elements of both the centralized and decentralized model that fit the needs of the organization, we might be able to balance the need for strict control with our artistic self-determination. For paradigm, we could create an intranet with a centralized Web server that links together departmental servers. The IS staff would be responsible for maintaining the central server and updating links to resources throughout the organization. The individual departments would be responsible for maintaining their own servers. To ensure the intranet is not abused, one person within each department could be responsible for that department's intranet resources. The real stars on our intranet are the applications we plan to develop. Still, we will need content for our intranet. Most of our content will be in the form of hypertext documents that are served by our Web server and displayed by our chosen Web browser. As we consider the type of content we want to publish on our intranet, think about how we will organize that content. We can organize hypertext documents in many ways. The structure that is best for a particular document depends on the complexity of the material we plan to present. For a small document with limited complexity, a simple structure is often best. Simple structures include linear and linear with alternative paths. The simplest way to structure a hypertext document is in a linear fashion. Using a pure linear structure, we can create a hypertext publication with a structure resembling a traditional print publication. Readers move forward and backward in sequence through the pages of the publication. An alternative path structure gives readers more options or paths through a document. By providing alternative paths, we make the structure of the publication more flexible. Instead of being able to move only forward and backward through the publication, readers can follow a branch from the main path. In a linear structure the branches will rejoin the main path at some point. The hierarchical structure is the most logical structure for a publication of moderate complexity. In this structure, we organize the publication into a directory tree. Readers can navigate through the publication, moving from one level of the publication to the next, more detailed, level of the publication. They can also go up the tree from the detailed level to a higher level and possibly jump to the top level. The information bank tree intimately look a lot like the way we store files on our hard drive in a main directory with subdirectories leading to files. We could also think of the hierarchy as a representation of an actual tree. If we invert the tree, the trunk of the tree would be the top level of the publication. The trunk could be the overview of the publication. The large boughs leading from the trunk would be the next level of the document structure. The boughs could be chapter overview pages. Branches leading from the boughs would be the next level, or the pages within chapters. A combined linear and hierarchical structure is one of the most used forms for hypertext publications. This is because it is an extremely flexible, but still highly structured method. Readers can move forward and backward through individual pages. They can navigate through the various levels of the publication by moving up a level or descending to the next level. They can also follow parallel paths through the document. The most complex structuring method is the integrated web. This method lets the reader follow multiple paths from many options. This is a good method to use when we want the reader to be able to browse or wander many times through the publication we have created. Each time through the publication, readers will probably discover something new. After considering the various styles for hypertext documents, we should examine the various tools we will need to develop the intranet. A tool is anything that supports the task we are working on. The tools for unleashing the power of our intranet are based on the existing tools for the Internet itself, which includes protocols, resource tools, and information services. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol) is the foundation of the worldwide Internet. We must install TCP/IP on our network to enable intranet services. A protocol is a set of rules for programs communicating on the network. It specifies how the programs talk to each other and what meaning to give to the data they receive. Without TCP/IP setting the rules for our network communications, we cannot use Internet technologies. The good news is that if our organization already has access to the World Wide Web; we might already have the necessary TCP/IP structure in place. Additionally, TCP/IP is built in to some operating systems, including Windows 95, Windows NT, and most variants of UNIX. If we have an operating system where TCP/IP is not built in and do not have TCP/IP installed, we will need to purchase TCP/IP software. Fortunately, TCP/IP software is widely available from software vendors. An intranet without Web services is like a world without water. The key to the World Wide Web is the hypertext transfer protocol. HTTP offers a means of moving from document to document, or of indexing within documents. Accessing documents published on our intranet involves communications between browsers and servers. In a browser, such as the Netscape Navigator, the HTTP processes are virtually transparent to the user. All the user really has to do is activate links to move through our Web presentation. The browser takes care of interpreting the hypertext transfer commands and communicating requests. The mechanism on the receiving end, which is processing the requests, is a program called the Hypertext Transfer Protocol Daemon (HTTP). A daemon is a UNIX term for a program that runs in the background and handles requests. The HTTP daemon resides on our Web server. Before setting up or installing server software, we must determine what platform the Web server will run on. Until recently, our choices were limited, but this changed rapidly as the World Wide Web grew in popularity. Today, Web server software and server management tools are available for almost every platform. And, like other software developed for use on the Internet, this software is available as freeware, shareware, and commercial software. We will find that UNIX platforms have the most options for server software. Until recently, there was only one good choice for the Windows NT environment, but this has changed. There are now many excellent commercial and freeware choices for Windows NT. For other platforms, there is generally only one choice in server software. Having only one choice of server software for the Windows system which doesn't mean the quality of the server software is poor. Quite the contrary, the quality of the software is often quite good. Tools are an essential part of any operation. Resource tools provide the means for sending and retrieving information. There are three basic tools of intranet working: Electronic mail is a great way to communicate. Think of e-mail as a way to send letters to anyone within the company instantly. Many e-mail programs enable delivery of mail to single users or groups of users. Some e-mail programs even provide ways to automate responses. Most browser packages are packaged with e-mail software. File transfer protocol provides the basic means for delivering and retrieving files around the network. The files can be text, sound, or graphics. FTP provides a springboard for many information-based approaches to retrieving information. Many higher level tools that have friendlier interfaces use FTP or a protocol similar to FTP to transfer files. Just about every browser currently available supports FTP. Telnet lets our intensive log into another system and browse files and directories on that remote system. Telnet is valuable because it is easy to use and basic to the network. When we telnet to another computer, we can issue commands as if we were typing on the other computer's keyboard. On some platforms, like UNIX, telnet is a built-in resource. On other platforms, we will need a telnet tool. The basic resource tools are indispensable when used for the purpose that they were designed for. They even provide the fundamental basis for many high-level resource tools, but they simply weren't designed for the advanced manipulation of the wealth of information available on the Internet. This is why dozens of information resource tools have been designed to manipulate networked data. At this juncture, there will be a list of high-level resource tools we might want to use on our intranet: A system to automatically gather, index, and serve information on the Internet. Archie is a great tool for searching our intranet's file archives. Once we set up Archie services, users can access Archie resources with their browser. A distributed information service that enables us to move easily through complex webs of network resources. Gopher uses a simple protocol that enables a Gopher client to access information on any accessible Gopher server. Most browsers directly support Gopher. An automated mailing list distribution system. Users can subscribe to LISTSERV lists we set up on the intranet, which enables them to read e-mail posted to the list or to post e-mail to the list. Once we set up a LISTSERV server, users can join lists and participate in lists using standard Internet e-mail software. Most browser packages include e-mail software. A bulletin board system of discussion groups called newsgroups. Users can participate in newsgroups posting messages to the group and can read messages posted by other newsgroup members. Once we set up a newsgroup server, users can browse newsgroups and post information to newsgroups using a newsgroup reader. Most browser packages include a newsgroup reader. A distributed information service for searching databases located throughout the network. It offers indexed searching for fast retrieval and an excellent feedback mechanism that enables the results of initial searches to influence later searches. WAIS servers are best accessed via CGI scripts, which allow users to search databases using their browser. Using HTML development tools, we can quickly and easily create HTML documents for our intranet. HTML editors have features similar to our favorite word processor and enable us to easily create documents in HTML format. Typically, these editors enable us to select HTML elements from a pull-down menu. The menu has brief descriptions of elements we can add to the document. The editor places the element in the document in the proper format, which frees us from having to memorize the format. When creating complex forms, we 'all find HTML editors especially useful. HTML templates enable us to add the functionality of an HTML editor to our favorite word processor. The great thing about templates is that we can use all the word processor's features, which could include checking grammar and spelling. In view of the above, it is evident; knowledge on the structure blocks for creating a perfect intranet is only the first step toward implementing our intranet. Our intranet will require content, which can be well thought-out in a diversity of approach and shaped with a variety of co-worker applications. We will also necessitate setting up basic networking protocols, like TCP/IP, and services like the WWW. Once we have selected the basic tools we have to create the intranet and measured how we will organize it, we can chart it all the way through achievement. More importantly, we 'all are using the familiar features of our word processor to add HTML formatting to our documents. Although the task of creating HTML code is fairly complex, some helper applications called converters try to automate the task. HTML converters convert our favorite document formats into HTML code and vice versa. At the touch of a button, we could transform a Word for Windows file into an HTML document. Converters are especially useful if we 're converting simple documents and are less useful when we 're exchanging documents with complex law its.

An ideal Internet atomosphere

An Ideal Intranet Ambiance

 In recent times I have gone through an article on intranet where it has been reflected in the sense that an artistic method feasible to intranet can be put side by side to a composition process where we can endeavor to construct the roof of the house before we place the underpinning, and we may facade somber problems. Let us dispense the concrete for the foundation of the house before we put in the necessary plumbing for water and sewer access, and have to spend more money than we bulldoze for. We can build a house one footstep at a time and as such we can make certain the house which has a strong foundation. Buildings with strong nitty-gritty tending to a certain period. When we have more or less done with the frame of the house, we build a roof. Although the roof of the house is the top of the structure, we do not stop there. It takes more than a covered frame to make a house. We hire an electrician to do the wiring and bring back the plumber to finish the plumbing. Afterward, we hang plaster board, add insulation, finish the exterior, add fixtures, and before we know it, we have a house that we can call home. We build an intranet in the same way, one step at a time. We can initiate on the intranet is about as glamorous as the water and sewer pipes waiting for the foundation to be poured around them; for just when we are ready to roll back our sleeves and dive into the intranet creation process with both feet, we might discover we need to conduct research, planning, or consider the requirements of the intranet. When we finally flesh out the foundation of the intranet, we start to build the framework. The basic components of any intranet are the hardware and software that make it work. The hardware used in the intranet is focused to determine the way the intranet is operated. The software our intranet uses will determine what the intranet is used for. Eventually, we finish designing the intranet, but find we still have to develop the hot Java-powered applications for the intranet. Even when we have completed the design and development processes, the intranet still is not over and done with in order to check the structure of the work for flaws. We make sure we have used the right structure and created the best tools. Once all this is done, we finally have an intranet worthy of the CEO's wholehearted embrace. Try to build the whole house at once and we will be overwhelmed. The same is true for any creative process. When we are building our intranet and its applications, we need to manage many things on a level of general organization and on a more specific level. If we mismanage expectations, our intranet might not turn out as we plan. Our potential anticipation and the opportunity of our superiors might be totally different. Before we start to design the intranet and the Java-powered applications for the intranet, make sure our prospect and the expectations of our administrator network. A good way to do this is to ensure that the infrastructure channels are open and used. To make certain that our scheme is a devastating success; we should argue outlook throughout the progress of the intranet, principally as we develop our intranet applications. If we develop a rapid prototype of key applications, our superiors should be the ones to verify that the designs meet their expectations. If the model does not meet their outlook, maybe the prototypes were an example of what not to do, or maybe the expectations of management are unrealistic. If our prototypes meet or exceed the expectations of our superiors, we have a green light and our project is well on its way to a successful implementation. We should also manage our personal expectations for the intranet and its applications. Our expectations play a major role in the success of the intranet. Realistic expectations ensure the success of our intranet. If we perceive the intranet as an impossibly large undertaking, we might cripple by virtue of wide range of knowledge in this regard. If we perceive the intranet as a trivial undertaking, we will not produce the best possible structure and tools for our organization. It is best to find a balance in our perceptions about the intranet. As we begin to design the intranet, keep in mind that the intranet creation process is a team effort. Few individuals will be able to handle all aspects of creating the intranet and its applications. For this reason, we should have an accurate perception of our abilities and know when it is in the best interest of the project to delegate tasks. Generating an intranet is exhilarating and demanding and as such we have to break a new ground, making efforts for new things, and carry out research work with a new-fangled request. Managing the intranet is the creation of an amazing process in whatever way some one will motivate us. If one way of thinking about the intranet is not motivating we, change tactics. Do whatever it takes to get the job done. We do not limit a few strategies or stick with one strategy when it obviously is not working. Make a list of strategies. If one strategy is not working, switch to a new one. If we do not have a new one, create a new one. The strategy we use can be very basic. A great strategy to start with is to plan to work on the project every day until it is completed. In addition to this strategy, we should add planning to involve both management and users in the development process. The degree of participation for management and users might need to be adjusted throughout the development process. Our role in the project should be a part of our strategy. Initially, we might want to work closely with the development team. Later, we might discover that our best role is to manage the development at a higher level. Or if we are the top programmer or network administrator, we might find that we need to work on application design rather than the actual programming. Adapting our role as necessary can help the project flourishing. When we start working on the intranet design and creation process, one of the first things we should do is develop goals. Our goals should take into consideration the complexities and nuances of the intranet we plan to develop for our organization. Goals should be clear and relevant to the problem at hand. Set major goals relevant to the purpose, scope, and audience of the intranet. Also, set minor goals or milestones for the stages of the intranet development and its applications. Goals and milestones help define the intranet development process as a series of steps or achievements. One major goal could be to complete the planning of the intranet; another major goal could be to complete the design of the intranet. The series of steps necessary to complete the major goals are the minor goals or milestones. Our first milestone will be to start work on the intranet. Another milestone might be to select and purchase the necessary intranet software, such as Web server software, browser software, and a Java Development environment. Our goals are to complete the major steps of the development process, such as planning and design. In designing a constructive intranet system, the intranet designer may create or provide rules that pertain specifically to the intranet's law or scope of control, such as the Information Systems department that will have overall responsibility for the intranet after completion. As we start to create the intranet, these rules might seem perfectly acceptable. However, as we conduct planning for the intranet and its applications, we might find that the overall responsibility of the intranet should be divided amongst the departments that will set up intranet servers. If these early rules cannot be modified to fit the current situation, we will have problems. We might encounter delays due to loss of efficiency or the final product might not be what was expected. No rule should ever be considered absolutely and even the best of rules should be interpreted as guidelines that can vary depending on the situation. Rules for a complex project like our intranet should be flexible and make sense. A rule that conflicts with something we are trying to do should be reexamined. The rule might be inappropriate for the situation we are trying to apply it and as such our intranet will never be put into action if we avoid working on it. Putting off work until something is due is a poor practice. Relinquish when things do not go our way or when we seem to have a block is another poor practice. Even if we flourish on cut-off date, sketch to work toward intranet's goals and milestones regularly-every day if necessary and possible. We should also plan to work on the intranet and its applications during those times when our thoughts are not flowing. Everyone has bad days and good days. Some days we take more breaks. Some days we work straight through the day and into the night. We might tend toward other destructive behavior besides avoiding or putting off work. Sometimes programmers go to the opposite extreme. They tear things apart impulsively before letting the work cool off so they can look at it objectively. Never hack our code just because a few users didn't like our application's interface. Managing the aspects of the intranet's design and creation is only the beginning. The next step is to determine the best organization for our intranet. Over the years, three models have developed for information systems like our intranet: centralized, decentralized, and a combination of centralized and decentralized. The three computing models are really driven by the types of computers in use at an organization. Following the centralized model, all computer resources are centered in one location and under the management of one organization. When we think of centralized computing, think of mainframes and computer centers. With the introduction of file server and client server computing, most organizations moved away from the centralized model toward a decentralized model. In decentralized computing, computer resources are spread throughout the organization and under the management of the departments in which the computers are located. When we think of decentralized computing, think of the high-power workstations and servers. After the big move to decentralize computer resources and dismantle massive computer centers, many managers had a rude awakening to the anarchy decentralized computing can cause. Let us imagine an organization where each department sets the rules and decides the standards, like what hardware and software to purchase and how that hardware and software should be set up. Then imagine the nightmare of trying to support the gauntlet of software and hardware installed throughout an organization the size of AT&T. Because of a lack of control with decentralized computing, many organizations are moving to the happy middle ground of a mixed computing model. In this mixed model, a centralized Information Systems management sets broad policy, such as the direction and purpose of key computing initiatives, and the individual departments are free to work within those guidelines. As we thrash out the accomplishment of the intranet with management, we should consider keeping the three working out models in mind. While our organization might currently use a specific model, we can apply any of the models to the design of our intranet and should egg on administration to prefer the mock-up that wills finest hand round our institute. In an ideal world, the concluding pronouncement will be based on the necessary responsibility and control of the intranet resources. Subsequent a centralized model, a specific department within the organization will be responsible for the intranet. This identical division will be accountable for the setup, design, and administration of our intranet servers. The department will also be responsible for creating the necessary publications and applications based on user requests. With a centralized model, there will usually be a formal approval process for new publications, applications and services. This means that if the Human Resources department wanted an application to track employee files, a formal request would be required. Once the request is approved, the intranet developers would work with Human Resources to create the application. The problem with centralized control and formal approval processes is that they put creativity and timeliness in thumbscrews. Following a decentralized model, each department within the organization is responsible for its section of the intranet. All departments that want to create intranet services will have to set up, design and administer their own intranet servers. Each department will also be responsible for creating the publications and applications used by the department. When we can draw on a decentralized model, we hack out the prescribed endorsement procedure for new publications, applications, and services. This means anyone can create intranet resources. Greater freedom and few controls means that new services can be set up quickly by anyone who wants to set them up. This freedom and lack of controls can also lead to abuse of the intranet resources. When someone publishes potentially offensive material or when the usefulness of the intranet deteriorates because so much junk has been created? By adopting elements of both the centralized and decentralized model that fit the needs of the organization, we might be able to balance the need for strict control with our artistic self-determination. For paradigm, we could create an intranet with a centralized Web server that links together departmental servers. The IS staff would be responsible for maintaining the central server and updating links to resources throughout the organization. The individual departments would be responsible for maintaining their own servers. To ensure the intranet is not abused, one person within each department could be responsible for that department's intranet resources. The real stars on our intranet are the applications we plan to develop. Still, we will need content for our intranet. Most of our content will be in the form of hypertext documents that are served by our Web server and displayed by our chosen Web browser. As we consider the type of content we want to publish on our intranet, think about how we will organize that content. We can organize hypertext documents in many ways. The structure that is best for a particular document depends on the complexity of the material we plan to present. For a small document with limited complexity, a simple structure is often best. Simple structures include linear and linear with alternative paths. The simplest way to structure a hypertext document is in a linear fashion. Using a pure linear structure, we can create a hypertext publication with a structure resembling a traditional print publication. Readers move forward and backward in sequence through the pages of the publication. An alternative path structure gives readers more options or paths through a document. By providing alternative paths, we make the structure of the publication more flexible. Instead of being able to move only forward and backward through the publication, readers can follow a branch from the main path. In a linear structure the branches will rejoin the main path at some point. The hierarchical structure is the most logical structure for a publication of moderate complexity. In this structure, we organize the publication into a directory tree. Readers can navigate through the publication, moving from one level of the publication to the next, more detailed, level of the publication. They can also go up the tree from the detailed level to a higher level and possibly jump to the top level. The information bank tree intimately look a lot like the way we store files on our hard drive in a main directory with subdirectories leading to files. We could also think of the hierarchy as a representation of an actual tree. If we invert the tree, the trunk of the tree would be the top level of the publication. The trunk could be the overview of the publication. The large boughs leading from the trunk would be the next level of the document structure. The boughs could be chapter overview pages. Branches leading from the boughs would be the next level, or the pages within chapters. A combined linear and hierarchical structure is one of the most used forms for hypertext publications. This is because it is an extremely flexible, but still highly structured method. Readers can move forward and backward through individual pages. They can navigate through the various levels of the publication by moving up a level or descending to the next level. They can also follow parallel paths through the document. The most complex structuring method is the integrated web. This method lets the reader follow multiple paths from many options. This is a good method to use when we want the reader to be able to browse or wander many times through the publication we have created. Each time through the publication, readers will probably discover something new. After considering the various styles for hypertext documents, we should examine the various tools we will need to develop the intranet. A tool is anything that supports the task we are working on. The tools for unleashing the power of our intranet are based on the existing tools for the Internet itself, which includes protocols, resource tools, and information services. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol Internet Protocol) is the foundation of the worldwide Internet. We must install TCP/IP on our network to enable intranet services. A protocol is a set of rules for programs communicating on the network. It specifies how the programs talk to each other and what meaning to give to the data they receive. Without TCP/IP setting the rules for our network communications, we cannot use Internet technologies. The good news is that if our organization already has access to the World Wide Web; we might already have the necessary TCP/IP structure in place. Additionally, TCP/IP is built in to some operating systems, including Windows 95, Windows NT, and most variants of UNIX. If we have an operating system where TCP/IP is not built in and do not have TCP/IP installed, we will need to purchase TCP/IP software. Fortunately, TCP/IP software is widely available from software vendors. An intranet without Web services is like a world without water. The key to the World Wide Web is the hypertext transfer protocol. HTTP offers a means of moving from document to document, or of indexing within documents. Accessing documents published on our intranet involves communications between browsers and servers. In a browser, such as the Netscape Navigator, the HTTP processes are virtually transparent to the user. All the user really has to do is activate links to move through our Web presentation. The browser takes care of interpreting the hypertext transfer commands and communicating requests. The mechanism on the receiving end, which is processing the requests, is a program called the Hypertext Transfer Protocol Daemon (HTTP). A daemon is a UNIX term for a program that runs in the background and handles requests. The HTTP daemon resides on our Web server. Before setting up or installing server software, we must determine what platform the Web server will run on. Until recently, our choices were limited, but this changed rapidly as the World Wide Web grew in popularity. Today, Web server software and server management tools are available for almost every platform. And, like other software developed for use on the Internet, this software is available as freeware, shareware, and commercial software. We will find that UNIX platforms have the most options for server software. Until recently, there was only one good choice for the Windows NT environment, but this has changed. There are now many excellent commercial and freeware choices for Windows NT. For other platforms, there is generally only one choice in server software. Having only one choice of server software for the Windows system which doesn't mean the quality of the server software is poor. Quite the contrary, the quality of the software is often quite good. Tools are an essential part of any operation. Resource tools provide the means for sending and retrieving information. There are three basic tools of intranet working: Electronic mail is a great way to communicate. Think of e-mail as a way to send letters to anyone within the company instantly. Many e-mail programs enable delivery of mail to single users or groups of users. Some e-mail programs even provide ways to automate responses. Most browser packages are packaged with e-mail software. File transfer protocol provides the basic means for delivering and retrieving files around the network. The files can be text, sound, or graphics. FTP provides a springboard for many information-based approaches to retrieving information. Many higher level tools that have friendlier interfaces use FTP or a protocol similar to FTP to transfer files. Just about every browser currently available supports FTP. Telnet lets our intensive log into another system and browse files and directories on that remote system. Telnet is valuable because it is easy to use and basic to the network. When we telnet to another computer, we can issue commands as if we were typing on the other computer's keyboard. On some platforms, like UNIX, telnet is a built-in resource. On other platforms, we will need a telnet tool. The basic resource tools are indispensable when used for the purpose that they were designed for. They even provide the fundamental basis for many high-level resource tools, but they simply weren't designed for the advanced manipulation of the wealth of information available on the Internet. This is why dozens of information resource tools have been designed to manipulate networked data. At this juncture, there will be a list of high-level resource tools we might want to use on our intranet: A system to automatically gather, index, and serve information on the Internet. Archie is a great tool for searching our intranet's file archives. Once we set up Archie services, users can access Archie resources with their browser. A distributed information service that enables us to move easily through complex webs of network resources. Gopher uses a simple protocol that enables a Gopher client to access information on any accessible Gopher server. Most browsers directly support Gopher. An automated mailing list distribution system. Users can subscribe to LISTSERV lists we set up on the intranet, which enables them to read e-mail posted to the list or to post e-mail to the list. Once we set up a LISTSERV server, users can join lists and participate in lists using standard Internet e-mail software. Most browser packages include e-mail software. A bulletin board system of discussion groups called newsgroups. Users can participate in newsgroups posting messages to the group and can read messages posted by other newsgroup members. Once we set up a newsgroup server, users can browse newsgroups and post information to newsgroups using a newsgroup reader. Most browser packages include a newsgroup reader. A distributed information service for searching databases located throughout the network. It offers indexed searching for fast retrieval and an excellent feedback mechanism that enables the results of initial searches to influence later searches. WAIS servers are best accessed via CGI scripts, which allow users to search databases using their browser. Using HTML development tools, we can quickly and easily create HTML documents for our intranet. HTML editors have features similar to our favorite word processor and enable us to easily create documents in HTML format. Typically, these editors enable us to select HTML elements from a pull-down menu. The menu has brief descriptions of elements we can add to the document. The editor places the element in the document in the proper format, which frees us from having to memorize the format. When creating complex forms, we 'all find HTML editors especially useful. HTML templates enable us to add the functionality of an HTML editor to our favorite word processor. The great thing about templates is that we can use all the word processor's features, which could include checking grammar and spelling. In view of the above, it is evident; knowledge on the structure blocks for creating a perfect intranet is only the first step toward implementing our intranet. Our intranet will require content, which can be well thought-out in a diversity of approach and shaped with a variety of co-worker applications. We will also necessitate setting up basic networking protocols, like TCP/IP, and services like the WWW. Once we have selected the basic tools we have to create the intranet and measured how we will organize it, we can chart it all the way through achievement. More importantly, we 'all are using the familiar features of our word processor to add HTML formatting to our documents. Although the task of creating HTML code is fairly complex, some helper applications called converters try to automate the task. HTML converters convert our favorite document formats into HTML code and vice versa. At the touch of a button, we could transform a Word for Windows file into an HTML document. Converters are especially useful if we 're converting simple documents and are less useful when we 're exchanging documents with complex law its.

Budgetary resources

Budgetary Resources of The Government of Bangladesh: An Outline Resources Classified According to SNA-93 Resources Classified According to Classification Chart Tax Receipts: Taxes On Production Tax On Products 0301 VAT on production of goods & services 0601 Excise on production of goods & services 0711 Supplementary duty on domestic production 0801 Electricity duty 0901 Advertisement tax 0911 Travel tax 0921 Turnover tax 0931 Air ticket tax 1001 Narcotics tax 1100 Transport vehicle tax 1101 Registration of transport vehicles 1105 Road tax 111 Driving license 1211 Land revenue: land development Tax 1231-1271: Lease of landed property 1301-1321: Stamp duty & others 2200 Toll and levy 0301 VAT on imports 0401 Customs duty 2400 Irrigation receipts 0701 Supplementary duty on imports Sale of Goods 2300 Non commercial sale of goods 2500 Defense receipts 3000 Commercial sales Sale of services 1800 Administrative fees 2000 Receipts from other services 2100 Rental and lease of GOB properties Property incomes: Interest receipts Dividends Rents Royalty Withdrawal of income 1611 Interest on domestic loans 1621 Interest on foreign relent loans 1631 Interest on loans and advances to GOB officials 1651 Other interest receipts 1701 Royalty on mines and minerals 1501 From Financial Corporations 1511 Non financial Corporations 3100 Railways 3200 Posts 3300 Telephone and telegraph Transfers to GOB in cash: Compulsory transfers Voluntary transfers in cash Transfers in kind: Voluntary transfers 0101 Company income tax 0111 Income tax on personal income 0200 Wealth & gift tax 1900 Fines & confiscation 3751 Other commodity grants 3761 Grants to projects 3781 Other foreign grants 3701Food grants Repayment of loans due to GOB 3800 Repayment of loans 3900 Repayment of advances to GOB officials Domestic borrowing : Short term Long term 4100 Floating loans through treasury bills and notes 4000 Term loans Foreign borrowing: Short term (non-commercial) Long term Commercial: Short term < 1 yr. Long term >1 yr. 4200 Foreign loans Disposal (Sale of property )Fixed assets Nonproduced assets,Enterprise, Financial assets 3601 Sale of land 3611 Sale of abandoned properties 3621 Sale of (disinsvestment) industrial units 3622 sale of Commercial enterprise 3631 Sale of other nonfinancial tangible property Tax base: VAT: Domestic goods: Value of non agricultural production of goods Domestic services: Value of production of services taxed VAT: On imports: value of imports Excise: value of production of excisable goods Supplementary duty on domestic goods and imports: same as VAT Corporation income tax; value of production Tax on personal income: volume of taxable income obtained from HES income distribution Aggregate tax yield projection: use tax –GDP ratio target Interest receipts: Volume of loans out standing and interest rates

Introductory level of Microsoft word

 When writing, you would usually put our feelings down on paper, in the form of sentences composed of words, as they occur. Your subsequent efforts may involve a lot of rewriting and rearrangement of the written material to enhance relevance, clarity and the appeal. Doing this in the traditional way with pen and paper can be a painstaking and time consuming process. Computers allow you to do the above with great ease offering much flexibility for fast editing and enhancing visual appearance. When computers are used to do the above it is called word processing. Computers however, do require certain programs or software called application software to enable you to do the work. The particular application software or program that you would use in this case is known as a word processor. MS WORD Microsoft Word is a full-featured word processor, which you can use to create and design documents such as letters and memos. You can edit documents, as well as enhance their appearance and print them in a variety of formats. With Word, you can also create documents such as newsletters, sales reports and brochures, price lists and add graphics and tables to them to enhance their presentation. The documents you create are limited solely by your imagination. STARTING WORD You can start Word using the Start menu. Once the program has been started, a brief copyright screen appears and then the application window opens. PROCEDURES 1. Click the Start button on the taskbar. 2. Point to Programs. 3. Select Microsoft Word. Notes: Word provides a Spelling and Grammar feature that you can use to ensure that your document is free of spelling and grammatical errors. You can get Help on a Word task or feature in many ways. Word provides the Office Assistant Help facility. The Office Assistant is context-sensitive, which means that help for the current task is only a mouse click away. The Assistant may also appear on your screen if Word detects that you need help completing the current task. You can also search detailed Help indexes by category or keyword. The first time you open Word after installation, the Office Assistant appears, welcoming you to the program. In this instance, select Start using Microsoft Word to start Word and close the Assistant. If the User Setup dialog box opens, enter your name and initials as necessary and then select OK. THE WORD SCREEN INTRODUCED When Word starts what you see on the screen is a rectangular box or window with different parts to it. This is the MS Word window and is the interface or environment. Where we do our word processing. It is made up of, THE APPLICATION WINDOW The application window contains the menu bar, toolbars, status bar, and document window. The bars allow you to navigate your way within Word to perform various tasks connected to your word processing. THE DOCUMENT WINDOW The document window opens within the application window when you start Word, open an existing file, or create a new document. It is where you type whatever you want to when preparing any document. Notes: • The menu bar allows you to access various commands, which are grouped according to function. • The toolbar buttons provide shortcuts to many menu commands. • The status bar provides information such as the current insertion point location and the number of pages in a document. • The document window contains scroll bars, the Select Browse Object button, the Previous and Next buttons, the View buttons, which allow you to move quickly through a document, and the Document Work Area where you enter the text, tables, and graphics you want to appear in your document. • Several document windows may be open at the same time. • The Office Assistant, a context-sensitive help feature, may appear within its own window in either the application or document window. The Office Assistant may appear when you open Word. You can adjust the capabilities of the Office Assistant, as well as choose not to have the Assistant appear, if desired. THE MOUSE POINTER The Mouse Pointer usually appearing on the screen as an arrowhead is the mouse device used to select commands or actions to be executed. It changes shape within the document area appearing as a capitalized roman i The following are the basic four functions of the Mouse Pointer:  Pointing : It means aiming  Clicking : It means Pressing left button for one time  Double Clicking : It means Pressing left button for twice speedily  Dragging. It means Holding and pressing Left button for selection purpose. THE CURSOR The Cursor or the insertion point is the blinking vertical line that appears at the upper left corner of the document work area. Any text you type appears on the screen to the right of the cursor. You can change the location of the cursor with the keyboard or the mouse. You do this when you wish to edit your document at different points. EXITING WORD When you have finished using Word, you should exit the application properly, since Word performs necessary housekeeping before it closes. PROCEDURES 1. Point to and click on the File menu. 2. Select and click on the Exit command. Notes: If the current document has been modified but not saved, Word prompts you to save the changes before exiting. NAVIGATING WORD HOW TO Discussion Notes With all the various elements of the screen or word window it would be natural to ask what is this..... And/or how do I......? The bars within the Word screen/window provide you with tools to access the various aspects of Word to execute specific actions. Navigating within Word via these bars is a simple task and you can do it easily using the mouse. TITLE BAR The title bar appears at the top of the application window and contains the name MS Word and the name of the document you're working on. MENU BAR Right below the title bar is the menu bar. The menu bar provides access to all the features of Word. Each menu contains commands grouped by function. When you select an item on the menu bar, the corresponding menu appears from which you can select the desired command. PROCEDURES 1. Point to and click an item on the menu bar. 2. Click on a command to execute it. Notes: Some menu commands are grayed or dimmed, which indicates that the command is not available for the current task. When a menu command is followed by an ellipsis (...), selecting it opens a dialog box in which additional information is entered. In addition to the standard menus on the menu bar, Word contains shortcut menus that may be accessed by clicking the right mouse button. Shortcut menus contain commonly used commands and are context-sensitive. Therefore, the options available on the shortcut menu vary, depending on the area of the window or the object selected. TOOLBARS Next are the Toolbars which contain shortcuts to the commands. These are displayed as buttons with icons or pictures of the action or item of choice. Each button executes a specific menu command. There are many toolbars providing a grouping of related commands and word gives you the option of choosing which you want displayed. You can choose to display one, several, or all the toolbars at any given time, or you can hide all the toolbars. You use the Toolbar submenu on the View menu to display and hide toolbars. PROCEDURES 1. Point to and click on the View command on the menu bar 2. Select and click on the Toolbars command 3. Select a toolbar to display by checking the box to the left of its name. Notes: When Word starts, the Standard and Formatting toolbars appear by default. The Standard toolbar contains buttons used for many general Word functions, whereas the Formatting toolbar contains buttons and pull-down lists used to enhance the appearance of text and paragraphs. Many of the toolbars display as floating palettes that can be moved to any location on the screen. You can also change the size and shape of the palettes. These options provide flexibility when you need to display several toolbars at once. When you point to a button on a toolbar, the name for its function appears. This description is referred to as a toolbar ScreenTip. PROCEDURES 1. Point to a button on the toolbar and note the screen tip 2. Click on a button to execute the associated toolbar command. Status Bar At the bottom of the word window you will find the status bar which gives you information about where you are in the document. It shows the location of the cursor, the page number, number of pages etc. in the current document. Scroll Bars There are two scroll bars - the vertical scroll bar at the right and the horizontal scroll bar at the bottom of the document window. These allow you allow you to quickly move around in a window. They allow you to move up and down and right and left in the document continuously or scroll through the document. The Select Browse Object button is located in the bottom right corner of the document vertical scroll bar between the Previous and Next buttons. This button allows you to navigate through large documents by going to specific objects such as a page, section, or heading. Rulers There are two rulers which allow you to see the position of the text in the document in inches, one at the top and one at the left. WORKING WITH DOCUMENTS I - Essential Skills Letters, memos, reports, or other work we do in Word are documents. When working with documents we can start with a new one or work on an existing one. In either case we must first have a document open on the screen. CREATING A NEW DOCUMENT When you want to start a new word processing job you must create a new document by opening a new document window. • You can easily create a new document by clicking on the New button in the Standard Toolbar PROCEDURES • Click the New button . • You can also create a new document by using the New command on the File menu. PROCEDURES 1. Select File 2. Select New 3. Select blank document in the New dialog box window 4. Click on OK ENTERING/TYPING TEXT When a new document window opens, a blinking vertical line appears in the upper left corner of the document window. This is the cursor or insertion point and it indicates the position where text can be entered or typed. WORD WRAP When typed text fills a line, Word automatically moves to the beginning of the next line. This feature is called word wrap. PARAGRAPHS You press the [Enter] key to move the insertion point to the beginning of a new paragraph, to insert a blank line between paragraphs, or to end a line of text. PROCEDURES 1. Type any text and keep typing till it wraps to the next line. 2. Press [Enter] as necessary to start a new paragraph 3. Type additional text as necessary. SAVING A NEWLY CREATED DOCUMENT After creating a new document, you can save it to disk so that you can retrieve it at another time. • You can save a newly created document by clicking on the Save button on the Standard toolbar • You can also select the Save command from the File menu to save a document. PROCEDURES 1. Click the Save button . 2. Type the desired file name. 3. Select the Save in list. 4. Select the drive in which you want to save the document. 5. Select the folder in which you want to save the document. 6. Select Save. Notes : When you save a document for the first time, Word opens the Save As dialog box in which you enter the desired file name and location. Subsequent saves do not display the Save As dialog box. Instead, any changes are saved to the same file name and location. A file name can consist of up to 255 characters. You can use the Create New Folder button in the Save As dialog box to create a new folder without leaving Word. The following characters cannot be used in filenames: (/), (\), (>), (<), (*), (“ ”), ( | ), (:), or (;). OPENING AN EXISTING DOCUMENT To work on an existing document you must open it from disk. • You can open an existing document by clicking on the Open button on the Standard toolbar • You can also open the Open dialog box by selecting the Open command from the File menu or by pressing [Ctrl+O]. You can have more than one document open at a time. PROCEDURES 1. Click the Open button . 2. Select the Look in list in the Open dialog box. 3. Select the drive where the document you want to open is located 4. Select the folder where the document you want to open is located 5. Select the name of the document you want to open 6. Select Open. Notes : The Open dialog box displays a list of folders and files in the current drive and folder. You can select the desired file from the list, or you can type the name of the file you want to open. If the file resides in a different drive or folder, you can use the Look in list to select the correct location. The folders and files residing in the selected location appear below the Look in box. The names of the 4 most recently opened documents appear in a list at the bottom of the File menu. You can click a file name in the list, to open the document. MOVING WITHIN THE DOCUMENT USING THE MOUSE You can view areas of the document that are not visible on the screen, and move through the text in a document by using the mouse and the scroll bars. Scrolling through a document does not move the insertion point. When using the mouse, you must click the mouse in the document to move the insertion point. PROCEDURES 1. Click the down scroll arrow to scroll down through the document text. 2. Click the up scroll arrow to scroll up through the document text. 3. Click below the vertical scroll box to scroll the document up one screen. 4. Click above the vertical scroll box to scroll the document down one screen. 5. Drag the vertical scroll box to the desired location in the document. When navigating in a multiple page document, you can use the Go to command on the Edit menu to move to a specific page. WORKING WITH DOCUMENTS - Editing Text DELETING TEXT Often you may find it necessary to delete single characters which were wrongly typed (typos). Word provides two ways to do this. • You can use the [Backspace] key to remove the character to the left of the insertion point and the [Delete] key to remove the character to the right of the insertion point PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point to the right of the character you want to remove. 2. Press [Backspace]. 3. Position the insertion point to the left of the character you want to remove. 4. Press [Delete]. SELECTING TEXT Many times you may want to perform a function (such as deleting or spell checking) on a word, sentence, paragraph, or particular area of text. To do so, you must first select the text. Selecting text expands the insertion point to highlight a block of text. • Text can be selected using the mouse or key combinations. PROCEDURES 1. To select a word, double-click it. 2. To select a sentence, hold [Ctrl], click anywhere in the sentence, and release [Ctrl]. 3. To select a paragraph, triple-click anywhere in the paragraph. 4. Click anywhere in the document to deselect selected text. 5. To select a text block using the mouse, drag across the text from the first character you want to select to the right of the last character you want to select. 6. To select an area of text using the mouse and the keyboard, position the insertion point to the left of the first character you want to select. 7. Press [Shift], position the insertion point to the right of the last character you want to select, and release [Shift]. 8. To select a line of text using the mouse and the keyboard, position the insertion point to the left of the first character you want to select. 9. Press [Shift+End] to go to the end of the text line. 10. To select the entire document, press [Ctrl+A]. Notes : Selecting a new text block or repositioning the insertion point deselects the original selection. MOVING WITHIN THE DOCUMENT USING THE MOUSE You can view areas of the document that are not visible on the screen, and move through the text in a document by using the mouse and the scroll bars. Scrolling through a document does not move the insertion point. When using the mouse, you must click the mouse in the document to move the insertion point. PROCEDURES 1. Click the down scroll arrow to scroll down through the document text. 2. Click the up scroll arrow to scroll up through the document text. 3. Click below the vertical scroll box to scroll the document up one screen. 4. Click above the vertical scroll box to scroll the document down one screen. 5. Drag the vertical scroll box to the desired location in the document. When navigating in a multiple page document, you can use the Go To command on the Edit menu to move to a specific page. DELETING AND REPLACING SELECTED TEXT Selected text can be deleted with a single keystroke. You can replace selected text simply by typing new text. No need to first delete the text. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to delete. 2. Press [Delete]. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to replace. 2. Type the replacement text. Notes: • You can also delete selected text by selecting the Clear command from the Edit menu. • The default option, Typing replaces selection, can be disabled on the Edit page of the Options dialog box. MOVING TEXT To move text when editing a document you use the Cut and Paste features of Word. • You can use the Cut and Paste buttons on the Standard toolbar to move selected text, from its original location and place it into a new location. • You can also move selected text using the Cut and Paste commands on the Edit menu. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to move. 2. Click the Cut button . 3. Position the insertion point in the location where you want to paste the text. 4. Click the Paste button . Notes : When deleting or moving text using the Cut and Paste features, Word automatically adds or removes spaces as needed, provided that the Use smart cut and paste option has been enabled on the Edit page of the Options dialog box. Cut text is placed on the Windows Clipboard. The Clipboard holds only one item at a time. The Paste feature does not remove the text from the Clipboard; you can continue to paste the same item until another item is placed on the Clipboard. COPYING TEXT To duplicate text, you can use the Copy and Paste features. • You can use the Copy and Paste buttons to copy selected text from one location to another. • You can also copy selected text using the Copy and Paste commands on the Edit menu. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to copy. 2. Click the Copy button . 3. Position the insertion point in the location where you want to paste the text. 4. Click the Paste button . Notes : The copied text is placed on the Clipboard. When copying selected text remains in the original location and a copy is placed in the new location. REVERSING/REDOING COMMANDS The Undo and Redo features allow you to reverse or redo the last command executed. When text has been accidentally deleted, this feature is invaluable. You can use the Redo feature to reverse the Undo feature. PROCEDURES 1. To undo the last command, click the Undo button . 2. To redo the last command, click the Redo button . NOTES : When you point to the Undo or Redo buttons, the type of task to be undone or redone appears as part of the ScreenTip. A feature related to Redo is the Repeat command, which is accessible from the Edit menu. Both commands are context-sensitive. You can use Repeat to duplicate the previous command. Similar to the Undo or Redo button, the type of task to be duplicated becomes part of the command. YOU CAN ALSO ACTIVATE THE UNDO FEATURE BY SELECTING THE UNDO COMMAND FROM THE EDIT MENU. MOVING AND COPYING TEXT WITH THE MOUSE Drag-and-drop editing allows you to move or copy text quickly using the mouse. This feature is most useful when the text you want to move or copy and the new location are both visible in the document window. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to move. 2. Drag the selected text to the location where you want to insert it. 3. Release the mouse button. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to copy. 2. Hold [Ctrl] and drag the selected text to the location where you want to insert it. 3. Release the mouse button and release [Ctrl]. Notes: When using drag-and-drop editing, the text is not placed on the Clipboard. By default, the Drag-and-drop text editing option is enabled on the Edit page of the Options dialog box. You can change this option, if desired. Session 5: DOCUMENT APPEARANCE - FORMATTING TEXT While the content of your document is primary, an attractive looking document makes for much easier reading. Being able to focus the reader's attention on important points or issues by adding visual emphasis to particular sections of text can increase the impact of your document significantly. Word provides you with the tools to enhance the visual appeal of your document by changing the way your text looks. One way to do this is to apply character formats. Character formatting which, enhances the appearance of text includes, Font Typeface defined as a group of characters sharing similar type attributes. Font Size refers to the height of printed text on a page; the higher the number, the larger the font size. Font Style refers to type enhancements such as bold and italic and underlining. FONT TYPEFACE Times New Roman Arial Courier FONT SIZE Times New Roman 8 Times New Roman 12 Times New Roman 18 FONT STYLE Bold type style Italic type style UNDERLINE Single underline Word only underline Word character formats Other character attributes accessible in the Font dialog box, include superscript and subscript which you might use for example, in scientific documents and font animation to create moving text and add colorful, moving borders to text. DOCUMENT APPEARANCE - FORMATTING TEXT While the content of your document is primary, an attractive looking document makes for much easier reading. Being able to focus the reader's attention on important points or issues by adding visual emphasis to particular sections of text can increase the impact of your document significantly. Discussion Word allows you to enhance the visual appeal of your document by applying character formats to change the way your text looks. Character formatting which, enhances the appearance of text includes, Font Typeface defined as a group of characters sharing similar type attributes. Font Size refers to the height of printed text on a page; the higher the number, the larger the font size. Font Style refers to type enhancements such as bold and italic and underlining. Word character formats Other character attributes are accessible in the Font dialog box, on the Format menu. You have superscript and subscript which you might use for example, in scientific documents and font animation to create moving text and add colorful, moving borders to text. SELECTING AND CHANGING FONTS Varying the font within a document improves the readability of the text and emphasizes key points. You can view the many font typefaces Word provides you with in the Font list on the Formatting toolbar. You can select a font prior to typing. Then, any text you type appears in the selected font until you select a new font. • You can change the font or any text using the Font list on the Formatting toolbar. • You can also change fonts using the Font page of the Font dialog box. The most recently used fonts appear in a list at the top of the Font list. Changing an existing font PROCEDURES 1. Select the text for which you want to change the font. 2. Select the Font list on the Formatting toolbar. 3. Select the desired font name. Notes : When selecting a font for a document, you should choose a font consistent with the purpose of the document. For example, a thick, bold font may be appropriate for the heading of an office memo but not for a personal letter. You can also mix fonts within a single document. For example, if your document has headings and text in paragraphs beneath each heading, you can select one font for the headings and another for the paragraphs. MODIFYING THE FONT SIZE You can vary font size within your document to emphasize key sections. Font size is measured in points. One point is approximately 1/72 of an inch. The larger the font size, the larger the type. Therefore, a word with a 36 point font size is approximately one-half inch in height. You can select a font size prior to typing text. As you type, you can mix font sizes. • You can modify font size from the Font size list on the Formatting toolbar. • You can also modify the font size using the Font page of the Font dialog box. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text for which you want to modify the font size. 2. Select the Font Size list on the Formatting toolbar. 3. Select the desired font size. Notes : Generally speaking, larger font sizes are used for headlines and headings, and smaller font sizes are used for body text. For example, if you are creating a newsletter, you can use a 22 point font for the headings and a 12 point font for the text. CHANGING FONT APPEARANCE (FONT FORMAT) You can change the character formats of existing text, either to add emphasis or to enhance the appearance of the text. The most commonly used character formats are bold and italic. Bold Formatting is used to call attention to text within a document, especially in headings. Italic Formatting also calls attention to text, but not as much as bold formatting. Italicized text slants to the right and is often used to emphasize a word within normal text. • You can easily apply bold formatting to text by using the Bold button on the formatting toolbar. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text for which you want to change the font format. 2. Click the Bold button . • You can easily apply italic formatting to text by using the Italic button on the formatting toolbar. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text for which you want to change the font format. 2. Click the Italic button . Notes: You can change the character formats as you type text. You can mix these character formats in any combination within the same document but, to get the maximum effect of any formatting, it is best to use it sparingly. You can also change the character formats of text using the Font page of the Font dialog box. You can tell which character formats have been applied to specific text by positioning the insertion point in the text. For example, if bold formatting has been applied to the current text, the Bold button is highlighted when you position the insertion point in the text. If you no longer want a character format applied to text, you can remove the formatting. Changing the font format of existing textThe Bold and Italic buttons are toggles. If you select text that contains one of these formats and click the Bold or Italic button, the format is removed.To bold or italicize a single word, you do not have to select the whole word; just position the insertion point within the word. UNDERLINING TEXT You can underline text to draw the reader's attention to it. There are several underline types from which you can choose to underscore text. • To place a single line under text, you can use the Underline button on the Formatting toolbar. • To apply a different underline type, you can choose from several others listed on the Font page of the Font dialog box. Notes: To underline a single word, you do not have to select the whole word; just position the insertion point within the word. The Underline button is a toggle. If you select text that contains underlining and click the Underline button the underlining is removed. Some commonly used underline types include Words only, which places a single underline under the words but not the spaces in a document; Double, which places a double underline under all text and spaces in a document; and Thick, which places a thick underline beneath all text and spaces in a document. You can preview each of these underline types on the Font page of the Font dialog box before actually applying them. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text you want to underline. 2. Select the Format menu. 3. Select the Font command. 4. Select the Underline list. 5. Select the underline option you want to apply. 6. Select OK. USING FONT EFFECTS There are several font effects from which you can choose to enhance text or to use in special situations. Some of these effects include Strikethrough, which places a single horizontal line through text; and Superscript and Subscript, which raise selected text above or below the current line and changes the text to a smaller font size. These two effects are often used in scientific writing. Additional effects are Outline which, displays the inner and outer borders of each character in a document. The Small caps effect formats selected lowercase text as small capital letters. The Small caps effect, however, does not affect numbers, punctuation, or uppercase letters. The Hidden effect prevents selected text from being displayed or printed. You can preview each of these font effects on the Font page of the Font dialog box before actually applying them. In addition, you can make text stand out in a document using Word animations. Examples of animations from which you can choose include Blinking Background, which flashes a black background behind text; Las Vegas Lights, which flashes tiny, different color shapes around text; and Marching Black Ants, which creates a clockwise movement of dashed lines around text. You can apply only one animation at a time. You can mix animations within a document, though to be most effective they should be used sparingly. You can preview each animation type on the Animation page of the Font dialog box before actually applying them. Animated effects do not print, although the text to which they are applied does print. COPYING CHARACTER FORMATS You can use the Format Painter button on the Standard toolbar to copy the character format of specific text and apply it to other text. This feature saves time when multiple formats have been applied to the text and you want to format other text with all the same formats. When the Format Painter is active, the mouse pointer becomes an I-beam with a paintbrush to its left. • To copy the selected formatting to multiple locations, double-click the Format Painter button to enable it. Then, click it again when you have finished formatting text to disable it. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text containing the formats you want to copy. 2. Click the Format Painter button . 3. Select the text you want to format. CHANGING CHARACTER CASE • Word can quickly change text case in a document using the Change Case dialog box. For example, you can change a lowercase sentence to uppercase. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text for which you want to change the case. 2. Select the Format menu. 3. Select the Change Case command. 4. Select the desired case option. 5. Select OK. Notes : You can also toggle from uppercase to lowercase letters in selected text. Toggling the case of selected text can save time if you have inadvertently typed text with the Caps Lock feature enabled. In addition to the lowercase and UPPERCASE options, the Change Case dialog box includes a number of other change case options. The Sentence case option capitalizes the first letter in each selected sentence. The Title Case option capitalizes the first letter in each word. The TOGGLE CASE option reverses the case for each letter. DOCUMENT APPEARANCE - FORMATTING PARAGRAPHS Paragraph formatting allows you to enhance the visual appeal of your document. It refers to the layout of the paragraph on the page and involves alignment, spacing, and indentation options Alignment refers to the relative location of text to the margins. Spacing refers to the distance between lines above, below, or within a paragraph. PARAGRAPH ALIGNMENT This paragraph is aligned with the left margin. This paragraph is aligned with the right margin. This paragraph is centered between the margins. Every line of a justified paragraph, except the last line, is aligned with both the left and right margins. PARAGRAPH and LINE SPACING Paragraph spacing refers to space above or below the paragraph. Line spacing refers to the spacing between each line of the paragraph. Word paragraph formats ALIGNING PARAGRAPHS Paragraph text can be aligned to the Left margin, the Right margin, or be Centered or Justified between right and left margins. • You can use the four alignment buttons, Align Left, Center, Align Right, and Justify on the Formatting toolbar to align paragraph text. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point in a single paragraph you want to align or select multiple paragraphs. 2. Click the desired alignment button on the Formatting toolbar. Notes : • Align Left aligns text to the left margin producing a ragged right margin • Center centers text between the left and the right margins. • Align Right aligns text to the right margin producing a ragged left margin. • Justify aligns text to both the left and right margins so that neither margin is ragged. When a paragraph is justified, Word adds extra space between words to justify the text. MODIFYING PARAGRAPH SPACING Paragraph spacing refers to the space above and below a paragraph. • You can adjust paragraph spacing on the Indents and Spacing page of the Paragraph dialog box. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point in the paragraph for which you want to change the spacing. 2. Select the Format menu. 3. Select the Paragraph command. 4. Select the Indents and Spacing tab. 5. Under Spacing, enter the desired spacing above the paragraph in the Before spin box. 6. Under Spacing, enter the desired spacing below the paragraph in the After spin box. 7. Select OK. Notes : You can vary paragraph spacing based upon your individual needs. Any changes you make are previewed in the Paragraph dialog box. MODIFYING LINE SPACING Line spacing refers to the distance between every line in a paragraph. • You can adjust the line spacing in a paragraph on the Indents and Spacing page of the Paragraph dialog box. Line spacing options from which you can choose include: Single, 1.5 lines, Double, At least, Exactly, and Multiple. You enter a specific point size when you select At least or Exactly, or enter a percentage when you select Multiple. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point in the paragraph for which you want to change the line spacing. 2. Select the Format menu. 3. Select the Paragraph command. 4. Select the Indents and Spacing tab. 5. Select the Line spacing list. 6. Select the desired line spacing. 7. Select OK. CREATING A LEFT INDENT Indenting a paragraph refers to moving it away from the left, the right, or both margins. • You can use the Increase Indent button on the Formatting toolbar to indent a paragraph away from the left margin to the right in half-inch increments. Creating a left indent PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point in the paragraph you want to indent. 2. Click the Increase Indent button . Notes : This feature has many uses, including calling attention to text and other sections in a document. You can click the Decrease Indent button on the Formatting toolbar to decrease a paragraph indent in half-inch increments. You can use options available in the Paragraph dialog box to select a different increment or a different type of indentation. INDENTING THE FIRST LINE Different types of left indents are available for paragraphs. The first line of paragraphs in many letters and documents is often indented from the left to improve readability. • It is easy to create a first line indent using the horizontal ruler. The indent marker on the left of the horizontal ruler is actually composed of two indent markers and a box. The top triangle is the First Line Indent marker and the bottom triangle is the Hanging Indent marker Indent Marker Use Indents only the first line of the selected paragraph from the left margin. Indents all lines of a paragraph other than the first line from the left margin. Moves both the first-line indent marker and the left indent marker simultaneously. PROCEDURES 1. Select the paragraphs you want to indent. 2. Drag the first-line indent marker to the desired position on the horizontal ruler. 3. Release the mouse button. Notes : The First Line Indent marker and the Hanging Indent marker move independently of each other. However, you can drag the Left Indent marker (the box) to move the First Line Indent and Hanging Indent markers simultaneously. CREATING A HANGING INDENT You can indent all lines of a paragraph without the first line. This type of indent is known as a hanging indent. A hanging indent is often used for lists or bibliographic references. PROCEDURES 1. Select the paragraphs you want to indent. 2. Drag the hanging indent marker to the desired position on the horizontal ruler. 3. Release the mouse button. CREATING A RIGHT INDENT You can indent a paragraph from the right margin. You may want to do this, for example, to make a paragraph stand out on a page. • You can indent selected text from the right margin by dragging the right margin marker which appears alone at the right end of the horizontal ruler. PROCEDURES 1. Select the paragraphs you want to indent. 2. Drag the right indent marker to the desired position on the horizontal ruler. 3. Release the mouse button. COPYING PARAGRAPH FORMATS With the Format Painter, you can copy the paragraph formatting of specific text and apply it to one or more other paragraphs. This feature saves time when the formatted paragraph you copy contains multiple formatting codes. • To copy the selected formatting to multiple locations, double-click the Format Painter button to enable it. Then, click it again when you have finished formatting paragraphs to disable it. PROCEDURES 1. Positions the insertion point in the paragraph containing the formatting you want to copy. 2. Click the Format Painter button . 3. Click in the paragraph you want to format. APPLYING A PARAGRAPH STYLE Styles make it simple to format text and paragraphs consistently. You can add styles as you type, or you can add styles to existing text and paragraphs. A style is composed of various character and paragraph formats and is saved with a style name. A style can be one of two types, character or paragraph. A character style is applied to specific text, while a paragraph style is applied to an entire paragraph. However, paragraph styles can contain character formatting. The style applied to the current text or paragraph appears in the Style list at the far left of the Formatting toolbar. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point in the paragraph to which you want to apply a style. 2. Select the Style list on the Formatting toolbar. 3. Select the desired style name. Applying the Body style Notes : Word comes with several built-in styles. The most commonly used style is Normal. For example, you can use the Normal style for the body of a letter. Other default styles include Heading 1, Heading 2, Heading 3, Body, and Default Paragraph Font. You can create your own styles as well. Although some styles include the word Heading in them and are designed for the headings in a document, you can use them for other situations as well. CREATING A STYLE If an existing style does not meet your specific needs, you can create a new style. The most expedient way to create a new style is to base the new style on an existing style and modifying that style. • To add a style to the Normal template, open the document containing the desired style and select the Style command from the Format menu. Select the name of the desired style, select Modify, and select the Add to template option. • You can also use the Modify Style dialog box to edit a style. When you edit a style, you can change formatting items such as font attributes, paragraph settings, tabs, and borders. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text containing the desired formatting for the new style. 2. Select the Style list on the Formatting toolbar. 3. Type the name for the new style. 4. Press [Enter]. Notes: When you create a new style using one of the existing styles in the Style box on the Formatting toolbar, it is associated only with the current document. You can then use the Modify Style dialog box to add it to the current template, if desired. When a style is added to the template, that style is available for all new and existing documents based on that template. If desired, you can assign shortcut key to select the style. BULLETS AND NUMBERS CREATING A NUMBERED LIST Discussion There may be times when you need to number a list or sequential items. For example, you may want to number specific steps on a list or add letters to an outline detailing the hierarchy of a corporation. • You can easily create a numbered list using the automatic numbering feature. To do this, you type a 1 or an A and then a ( . ), ( - ), or ) followed by a space, or two spaces without any punctuation, and then text. Word assumes you want to sequentially list the items. Thereafter, each time you press [Enter], the next applicable number or letter in the sequence appears. To create a numbered list you can also, use the Numbered and Outline Numbered pages in the Bullets and Numbering dialog box from the Format menu You can disable numbering by pressing the [Enter] key to start a new line and then clicking the Numbering button or pressing the [Enter] key again or the [Backspace] key. You can select from additional number styles in the Bullets and Numbering dialog box, as well as customize a number style. Just as when you use automatic numbering, the next applicable number or letter appears each time you press the [Enter] key. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point where you want to begin the numbered list. 2. Type the desired number or letter to begin the list. 3. Add the desired spacing or punctuation. 4. Type the desired text for the first item on the list. 5. Press [Enter]. ADDING NUMBERS TO TEXT Discussion Word can generate a numbered list from existing text. This feature is a great timesaver. For example, you may decide that a previously created, unnumbered list would appear better as a numbered list. When you use the Numbering button on the Formatting toolbar, Word numbers each paragraph of the selected text sequentially, beginning with the number 1. PROCEDURES 1. Select the text to which you want to add numbers. 2. Click the Numbering button . REMOVING NUMBERS FROM TEXT Discussion If you decide that numbers are no longer appropriate, you can remove them from the text. • You can use the Numbering button on the Formatting toolbar to remove numbers from a list. PROCEDURES 1. Select the list from which you want to remove the numbers. 2. Click the Numbering button . ADDING OR DELETING A NUMBERED ITEM Discussion • If an item in a numbered list is added or deleted, Word automatically renumbers the subsequent items as needed. It is often helpful to display the nonprinting characters to assist you in this task. • In addition, Word automatically renumbers a list when items are moved, added or deleted. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point at the end of the item after which you want to add a new item. 2. Press [Enter]. PROCEDURES 1. Click in the selection bar to the left of the item you want to delete. 2. Press [Delete]. CREATING A BULLETED LIST Discussion When you want to emphasize items in a list in no particular order, you can use a bulleted list. • The easiest way to create a bulleted list is to use the automatic bulleting feature. Whenever you type an asterisk (*) followed by a space and text, Word assumes you want to create a bulleted list. Thereafter, each time you press the [Enter] key, a bullet appears on the next line. • You can also use the Bulleted page of the Bullets and Numbering command from the Format menu to create a bulleted list. In the Bullets and Numbering dialog box, you can select from additional bullet styles, as well as customize bullet styles. Just as when you use automatic bulleting, a bulleted line appears automatically each time you press the [Enter] key. You can disable bullets by pressing [Enter] and clicking the Bullets button or pressing [Enter] again or the [Backspace] key. PROCEDURES 1. Position the insertion point where you want to begin the bulleted list. 2. Type an asterisk (*). 3. Press [Spacebar]. 4. Type the desired text for the first bullet in the list. 5. Press [Enter]. ADDING AND REMOVING BULLETS TO AND FROM TEXT Discussion Word can generate a bulleted list from existing text. • When you use the Bullets button on the Formatting toolbar, Word adds a bullet to each paragraph of the selected text. This feature is a great time-saver. For example, you may decide that a previously created unbulleted list would appear better as a bulleted list. Adding bullets to text PROCEDURES 1. Select the text to which you want to add bullets. 2. Click the Bullets button . REMOVING BULLETS FROM TEXT Discussion • If you decide that bullets are no longer appropriate, you can remove them from the text. You can use the Bullets button on the Formatting toolbar to remove bullets from selected text. PROCEDURES 1. Select the list from which you want to remove the bullets. 2. Click the Bullets button . CHANGING BULLETS AND NUMBERS Discussion • You can change bullet and number styles using options available in the Bullets and Numbering dialog box. • You can also mix different bullet and number styles within the same document, if desired. PROCEDURES 1. Select the Format menu. 2. Select the Bullets and Numbering command. 3. Select the desired tab. 4. Select the desired style. 5. Select OK.