BOND ENTHALPY IN THE FORM OF BOND ENERGY

BOND ENTHALPY IN THE FORM OF BOND ENERGY This article envisages bond enthalpies in the form of bond energies and looks at some simple calculations involving them. One of the most confusing things about this is the way the words are used. These days, the term "bond enthalpy" is normally used, but we will also find it described as "bond energy" - sometimes in the same article. An even older term is "bond strength". So we can take all these terms as being interchangeable. As we will see below, though, "bond enthalpy" is used in several different ways, and we might need to be careful about this.
Explaining the terms Bond dissociation enthalpy and mean bond enthalpy indicate Simple diatomic molecules A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms. They could be the same (for example, Cl2) or different (for example, HCl). The bond dissociation enthalpy is the energy needed to break one mole of the bond to give separated atoms, everything being in the gas state. The point about everything being in the gas state is essential.  We cannot use bond enthalpies to do calculations directly from substances starting in the liquid or solid state. As an example of bond dissociation enthalpy, to break up 1 mole of gaseous hydrogen chloride molecules into separate gaseous hydrogen and chlorine atoms takes 432 kj. The bond dissociation enthalpy for the H-HCl bond is +432 kj mol-1. More complicated molecules What happens if the molecule has several bonds, rather than just 1? Consider methane, CH4. It contains four identical C-H bonds, and it seems reasonable that they should all have the same bond enthalpy. However, if you took methane to pieces one hydrogen at a time, it would need a different amount of energy to break each of the four C-H bonds. Every time you break a hydrogen off the carbon, the environment of those left behind changes. And the strength of a bond is affected by what else is around it. In cases like this, the bond enthalpy quoted is an average value. In the methane case, you can work out how much energy is needed to break a mole of methane gas into gaseous carbon and hydrogen atoms. That comes to +1662 kj and involves breaking 4 moles of C-H bonds. The average bond energy is therefore +1662/4 kj, which is +415.5 kj per mole of bonds. That means that many bond enthalpies are actually quoted as mean (or average) bond enthalpies, although it might not actually say so. Mean bond enthalpies are sometimes referred to as "bond enthalpy terms". In fact, tables of bond enthalpies give average values in another sense as well, particularly in organic chemistry. The bond enthalpy of, say, the C-H bond varies depending on what is around it in the molecule. So, data tables use average values, which will work well enough in most cases. That means that if you use the C-H value in some calculation, you can't be sure that it exactly fits the molecule you are working with. So don't expect calculations using mean bond enthalpies to give very reliable answers. You may well have to know the difference between a bond dissociation enthalpy and a mean bond enthalpy, and you should be aware that the word mean (or average) is used in two slightly different senses. But for calculation purposes, it isn't something you need to worry about. Just use the values you are given.
. We should bear in mind that we can only use bond enthalpies directly if everything you are working with is in the gas state. Using the same method as for other enthalpy sums We are going to estimate the enthalpy change of reaction for the reaction between carbon monoxide and steam. This is a part of the manufacturing process for hydrogen. The bond enthalpies are: bond enthalpy (kJ mol-1) C-O in carbon monoxide +1077 C-O in carbon dioxide +805 O-H +464 H-H +436 So let's do the sum. Here is the cycle - make sure that you understand exactly why it is the way it is. And now equate the two routes, and solve the equation to find the enthalpy change of reaction. ΔH + 2(805) + 436 = 1077 + 2(464) ΔH = 1077 + 2(464) - 2(805) - 436 ΔH = -41 kJ mol-1 Using a shortcut method for simple cases You could do any bond enthalpy sum by the method above, taking the molecules completely to pieces and then remaking the bonds. If you are happy doing it that way, just go on doing it that way. However, if you are prepared to give it some thought, you can save a bit of time, although only in very simple cases where the changes in a molecule are very small. For example, chlorine reacts with ethane to give chloroethane and hydrogen chloride gases. (All of these are gases. I have left the state symbols out this time to avoid cluttering the diagram.) It is always a good idea to draw full structural formulae when you are doing bond enthalpy calculations. It makes it much easier to count up how many of each type of bond you have to break and make. If you look at the equation carefully, you can see what I mean by a "simple case". Hardly anything has changed in this reaction. You could work out how much energy is needed to break every bond, and how much is given out in making the new ones, but quite a lot of the time, you are just remaking the same bond. All that has actually changed is that you have broken a C-H bond and a Cl-Cl bond, and made a new C-Cl bond and a new H-Cl bond. So you can just work those out. bond enthalpy (kJ mol-1) C-H +413 Cl-Cl +243 C-Cl +346 H-Cl +432 Work out the energy needed to break C-H and Cl-Cl: +413 + 243 = +656 kJ mol-1 Work out the energy released when you make C-Cl and H-Cl: -346 - 432 = -778 kJ mol-1 So the net change is +656 - 778 = -122 kJ mol-1
we have a liquid present

Yaba culture, a new threat on youths

There is no denying the fact that presently, young groups are being habituated day by day to taking yaba and are pushed into the murky world from where there is little chance of coming back to normal life. When a person is addicted to such a toxic drug, some changes appear gloomily in his normal activities and in his whole physical state of affairs. Some changes may happen in his overall mental physique; he cannot sleep at night, he talks in a meaningless way, he feels intense headache and diminished hunger, his hallucinations and thoughts turn hazy, all of which result from breakdown of the nervous system and damage of neurons step by step. Virtually, such symptoms are not the actual symptoms of a man who enjoys a sound body as well as a sound mind. Suffice it to say, feeling sick every time may be collectively presumed as the characteristics of yaba-infected persons. With taking yaba, people become physically and mentally sick, and as such, after being addicted, they behave abnormally, like being jealous, crazy, hypocritical, and mentally disrobed, he cannot behave like a healthy man; rather, their attitude and feelings turn into a strange display by their flow of movement, talking, walking, and their general pattern of life. Such behavioral patterns indicate the dealings like lower animals of neurotic creatures, far away from human beings. For this reason, the vigorous society believes that the resources of the drug-addicted person have been robbed and he has been well-groomed overnight.

It is obvious that being addicted to such dreadful drugs, they may be inclined to behave like the smart boy who is based on a wrong conception of stylishness and personality. Elegance originates from the principle of integrity, faith, justice, and tranquility. They are usually found committing mistakes in defining elegance and chic. They develop a passion for it and make it a style without considering any negative effects in the future. It bestows them impulsive elation in their life, and they are found slowly but surely absorbed in it. The inventiveness of insidious know-how spreads rapidly like pestilence through rake associations. It is too late, however, when they become conversant with the toxic effects and new concepts begin to flourish in their survival due to machination as a new invention of pleasing and exciting aspects. Eventually, they do not find any way to get rid of and the search for tidiness thus ends in the canopy passageway of obliteration. Such fatal consequences take place when the young men are not guided properly. When the high-class, particularly parents and teachers, keep themselves aloof from being infected, the subordinate groups lead their efforts into their own decisions without much speculation. They slither in the drug fence as there is no one to tip them off. Taking advantage of the situation, the mafia ogres with their influential words make the gullible boys and girls their easy victims; so the cavernous detachment between parents and progeny, teachers and young learners, irrespective of caste and creed, is also liable on a large scale for the yaba hazard ingrained in social and cultural tradition. The letdown of the youths in building a good preference is the partial drawback of the superiors and advisors in carrying out their own errands.

Therefore, it is noteworthy that they are one way or another distorted to take drugs like Yaba, heroin, chorus, phencidel, wine, cigarettes, alcohol, and many other intoxicating materials awfully detrimental to vigor and hygiene. When a person loses optimism in life, he thinks that drug addiction is the only way without which he cannot live to tell the tale on earth, and as such, in the next course of action, he takes drug after drug and becomes captivated. At one time, he becomes irritated; he cannot give up those addictions because he remains in a state of phantasm and is sensitively malformed.  Hence, alcoholics do not drink minimally for gratification, but because they assume that they cannot face life's problems ingrained in blood and bone without alcohol. To get rid of such hurdles, he or she should devote himself or herself to work with sincere attention and a painstaking attitude. He or she should take physical exercise in the form of meditation and religion. He or she needs to be truthful, credulous, and ideal-based on simple living and high thinking, to get involved in how to lead a controlled and clean life.

The Pollutions around us

A substance may be a contaminant when its presence in air, water, or soil harms the organism in question is predominant and as such, bacteria and virus carriers, such as minute living things, can cause contamination in a significant manner. Pollutants harm humans in different ways, where in high concentrations they can cause ill health and even death. These sorts of pollutants, which are horrifying in due sense, can spread through food chains, spoiling plants and animals and endangering human food supplies like fish, and they can cause dirt and obnoxious smells.

Atmospheric pollution

The principal source of air contamination is the burning of coal and oil in houses and factories, and in the engines of cars, buses, airplanes, and thus smoke assembled by burning contains small particles of dust which are mainly carbon. This dust accumulates on the walls of the buildings and settles on the leaves of plants, limiting photosynthesis by cutting out light and limiting materialization by blocking stomata. Smoke contains sulphur dioxide that reacts with water vapour in the air, forming sulphuric acid, causing damage to the stonework of buildings, the leaves of plants, and people's lungs, which are vitally important for controlling breathing function. Garden bonfires can also be a source of hazardous pollution. If household rubbish including plastic and polystyrene is added to the fire, its smoke will contain up to 300 times more cancer-producing chemicals than cigarette smoke, as well as cyanide, lead, dioxin, and other poisonous chemicals. There is no denying the fact that Petrol and diesel engines release fumes containing oxides of nitrogen and lead compounds. Once lead enters the body, it cannot be removed by the excretory system. It collects in the body, eventually causing damage, especially to the brain.

Mellifluous Pollution

The main source of water pollution is sewage from houses and farms, chemical waste from industry and agriculture, and spilled oil. Sewage can be made harmless, but in many countries population growth has overloaded sewage handling works, and untreated sewage is released into rivers and the sea. Bacteria in water disintegrate sewage, but in lakes and slow-moving rivers this process uses up oxygen so briskly that fish, insects, and tadpoles are missing. Industrial waste often manifests very venomous, long-lasting pollutants such as composites of cyanide, lead, and mercury, and copper. These chemicals are hazardous even in small concentrations, because when they are discharged into streams and rivulets, they harm fish and other aquatic creatures. In this way these are amplified through food chains to water birds and sometimes humans.

In many recent farms, poultry, cattle, and pigs are kept in buildings, and there is no other land on which to use the fertilizer that they produce. The manure is released into local streams and rivers where it decomposes and reduces oxygen levels in the same way as untreated domestic sewage. Other pollutants attributable to modern farming methods include chemical sprays that kill insect pests and fungi that skirmish crop plants. If these chemicals enter rivers and ponds, they can spread throughout food chains in the same way as industrial waste.

Dispersion

Radiation such as X-rays and beta and gamma rays can cause various types of cancer, a blood disorder known as leukemia, and damage to the sperm and ova resulting in deformed babies. Natural radiation comes from outer space in the form of cosmic rays, and artificial radiation comes from certain medical and industrial processes. Little if any harm comes from these sources, but there is increasing concern about radiation from the testing of nuclear power to generate electricity will increase. There is always a risk in emitting radiation upon the surface where it is falling. The people who are always dealing with radiation as a routine job and for research purpose, they need to be careful about such fission and fusion phenomena. If air is polluted by radiation, the environment must be polluted in question, and consequently many dreadful diseases may break out.

Meteorological pollution:

There are many ranges of barometric pollution problems currently alarming the Earth's general environment; the problem arises from the acidic gases produced by burning fossil fuels in different situations. The majority of power stations in industrialized countries burn coal or oil. Both these fuels are polluted with sulphur, which produces sulphur dioxide when it burns. The wind can carry acid rain clouds away from the industrialized centers, causing the pollution to fall on other countries. Besides this, oxides of Nitrogen dioxide are produced when thunderstorms blow, or air is heated in furnaces or in vehicle petrol engines. Consequently, these gases dissolve in rainwater to produce acid rain. Due to acid rain, the following adverse effects are observed:

·         Limestone buildings and statues are worn away.

·         Lakes and rivers are acidified, and the presence of metal ions leached out of the soil damages the gills of the fish, and as such the fish can die.

·         The nutrients are leached out of the soil and from leaves. Trees are deprived of these nutrients. Aluminum ions are freed from the clay as Aluminum sulphate and damage the roots of the trees. The tree is unable to draw up water through damaged roots, and it dies. Due to depletion of the ozone layer, a protective layer of ozone in the stratosphere prevents harmful ultraviolet radiation from reaching the Earth's surface; the ozone layer remains depleted.

·         Chlorofluorocarbons and other halogen compounds are formed due to the depletion of the ozone layer, which causes damage to human beings and plants in question, for which restrictions have been imposed to use of such compounds virtually by International agreement.

In view of the above, it is evident that if the situation were to grow worse, a preamble to higher levels of ultraviolet radiation could affect more cases of skin cancer in humans and cause damage to crops to a great extent. That is to say, when burning chemicals and bricks, poisonous gas emit, and as such, sulphur dioxide gas, nitrogen dioxide gas, and carbon monoxide gas are produced in the atmospheric layer, and consequently, acid rain occurs. This sort of acid rain causes trees to be destroyed and soil to be polluted and poisonous. 

As a result of creating such dangerous pollutants, our lives are becoming risky and a health hazard. Besides this, the problems of greenhouse effects are throughout the world, for which we should find out ways and means to solve the impediments, which create health exposure in our everyday life. The CFC gas is the product of tremendous effects of greenhouse gases, and as a result, our environment is being polluted, creating great health vulnerability in question. The fact is that due to awesome increase of CFC gas and carbon dioxide, ozone layer is consequently licked and the ultra-violet ray from the Ionosphere is in the way to hit the earth directly for which the surface temperature is gradually increasing and the ice is melted and the depth of the sea is also being increased. It is hoped in the future that in course of time, the earth will be inundated under water. It has been observed in recent years survey that due to the tremendous indiscriminate use of polyethylene bags, pollution are occurring to a great extent. In the world, wastage is being observed, but these are being recycled in a developed process, which are the consequence of better technology and scientific research. In order to remove such pollution, better technology and a strong recycling process are needed, for which new bags are possible to be made. 

Besides this, we need to be careful about dealing wastage for which prospective and alternative measures are keenly emphasized in a systematic manner. We know that plants and trees are vitally important in order to make our environments healthy and sophisticated to live peacefully in the world. On the other hand, due to a lack of trees, adverse situations prevail in the atmospheric layer, such as increasing carbon dioxide and dust particles. If this type of gas increases in the layer, our environment becomes barren and unsuitable for living. We use oxygen in our inhalation and give out carbon dioxide as a general flow of breathing function. Trees give us shade and fruits for which our survival on earth becomes easy and comfortable. We need trees in order to make our environment free from pollution. 

Hence, it is widely recognized that due to enormous use of plants and trees, we are always facing situations of health hazards, and for which the government is careful to plant trees in place of the trees cut down. Since plants and trees are being cut down to a great extent, the amount of land has been reducing day by day, for which the scarcity of cultivable land is being observed tremendously. As a result of being extinct the extinction of forests, the number of animals, birds, and other creatures living in woodlands is being reduced to a great extent. The main weapon to fight against extinction is self-awareness and consciousness. It has to come within everybody that we have to possess the feelings of responsibility and environmentalism, to build a better world -a world full of evergreen beauty and spirited animals and for this purpose, the following steps may be taken in due course.

·         Following and whaling should be absolutely proscribed

·         Deforestation needs to be counteracted

·         The use of ivory and furs needs to be declared as a punishable crime imposing an exemplary penalty in question.

·         National parks and nature reserves should be created

·         The natural habitats of endangered species should be preserved.

If these tactics of measures are accomplished instantaneously, then it may be anticipated an optimistic upshot that a man can see the dawn of a new era in the history of the world, which will be even more eye-catching if we are engrossed to be humiliated with one another by forsaking all sorts of enmity and quarrelsome activities from the social life.

The history of Mughal Territory In Indo-subcontinent

There is no denying the fact that the Mughal Territory was a dominion that, at its paramount defensive extent, ruled parts of what is today's Afghanistan, Pakistan, and most of the Indian Subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, between 1526 and 1707. The realm was founded by the Timurid predecessor Babur in 1526, when he defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans, at the First Battle of Panipat. "Mughal" is the Persian word for "Mongol". The religion of the Mughals was Islam, and based on the faith in God, the ruling system was promulgated in the form of administration and defense as a tentative flow. The terrain was generally subjugated by the Afghan Sher Shah Suri in the course of the time of Humayun, the second Mughal monarch, but under Akbar it grew considerably, and continued to grow until the end of Aurangzeb's rule. Jahangir, the son of Akbar, ruled the empire between 1605–1627. In October 1627, Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, son of Jahangir, "ascended the throne", where he "inherited a vast and rich empire" in India; and "at mid-century this was perhaps the greatest empire in the world". Shah Jahan commissioned the famous TajMahal (between 1630–1653), in Agra. The Mughals faced stiff competition from the Marathas, and after Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire started to decline in actual power, giving way to the rise of the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Mughals however managed to maintain some trappings of power in the India for another 150 years. In 1739 it was defeated by an army from Persia led by Nadir Shah. In 1756 an army of Ahmed Shah Abdali took Delhi again. The British Empire finally dissolved it in 1857, immediately prior to which it existed only at the sufferance of the British East India Company. Faith The Mughal ruling class was liberal-minded Muslims, even thoughfurthermost of the subjects of the Empire were Hindu. Though Babur established the Empire, the empire remained unstable (and was even exiled) until the reign of Akbar, who was not only of liberal disposition but also intimately acquainted, since birth, with the mores and traditions of India. Under Akbar's rule, the court abolished the jizya (the poll-tax on non-Muslims) and abandoned use of the lunar Muslim calendar in favor of a solar calendar more useful for agriculture. One of Akbar's most unusual ideas regarding religion was Din-i-Ilahi ("Faith-of-God" in English), which was an eclectic mix of Hinduism, panthiestic versions of Sufi Islam,Zoroastrianism and Christianity. It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These actions however met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy. However, the orthodoxy regained influence only three generations later, with Aurangzeb, known for upholding doctrines of orthodox Islam; this last of the Great Mughals retracted nearly all the liberal policies of his forbears.  Mughal Sovereigns Emperor Reign start Reign end Babur 1526 1530 Humayun 1530 1540 Interregnum * 1540 1555 Humayun 1555 1556 Akbar 1556 1605 Jahangir 1605 1627 Shah Jahan 1627 1658 Aurangzeb 1658 1707 Formation and supremacy of Babur In the early 16th century, Muslim armies consisting of Mongol, Turkic, Persian, and Afghan warriors invaded India under the leadership of the Timurid prince Zahir-ud-Din-Mohammad Babur. Babur was the great-grandson of Mongol conqueror TimurLenk (Timur the Lame, from which the Western name Tamerlane is derived), who had invaded India in 1398 before retiring to Samarkand who himself claimed descent from the Mongol ruler, Genghis Khan. Babur was driven from Samarkand by the Uzbeks and initially established his rule in Kabul in 1504. Later, taking advantage of internal discontent in the Delhi sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi, and following an invitation from Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan (uncle of the Sultan), Babur invaded India in 1526. Babur, a seasoned military commander, entered India in 1526 with his well-trained veteran army of 12,000 to meet the sultan's huge but unwieldy and disunited force of more than 100,000 men. Babur defeated the Lodi sultan decisively at the first Battle of Panipat. Employing gun carts, moveable artillery, and superior cavalry tactics, Babur achieved a resounding victory and the Sultan was killed. A year later (1527) he decisively defeated, at the battle of Khanwa, a Rajput confederacy led by RanaSanga of Chittor. A third major battle was fought in 1529 when, at the battle of Gogra, Babur routed the joint forces of Afghans and the sultan of Bengal. Babur died in 1530 at Agra before he could consolidate his military gains. He left behind as his chief legacy a set of descendants who would fulfill his dream of establishing an empire in the Indian subcontinent. Early Sikh Gurus' perception of the Mughal Empire Babur's reign was witnessed by the first Sikh Guru Nanak DevJi. His RaagAsa Guru records Nanak's observations and thoughts in his poems. It says: "Having attacked Khuraasaan, Babar terrified Hindustan. The Creator Himself does not take the blame, but has sent the Mugal as the messenger of death. There was so much slaughter that the people screamed. Didn't You feel compassion, Lord?" Hindu women in Babur's rule: "Those heads garlanded with interweavedmop, with their parts highlighted with vermilion - those heads were shaved with scissors, and their throats were choked with dust.They lived in regalmanors, but now, they cannot even sit near the palaces.... ropes were put around their necks, and their strings of pearls were broken. Their wealth and youthful beauty, which gave them so much pleasure, have now become their enemies. The order was given to the soldiers, who dishonored them, and carried them away. If it is pleasing to God's Will, He bestows greatness; if is pleases His Will, He bestows punishment" Mughal rule under Babur: "First, the tree puts down its roots, and then it spreads out its shade above. The kings are tigers, and their officials are dogs; they go out and awaken the sleeping people to harass them. The public servants inflict wounds with their nails. The dogs lick up the blood that is spilled." Source: Rag Malar, (pg.1288) Strangely enough, the land on which the Sikh Golden temple now stands, was actually donated by Mughal emperor Akbar. Reign of Humayun When Babur died, his son Humayun (1530–56) inherited a difficult task. He was pressed from all sides by a reassertion of Afghan claims to the Delhi throne and by disputes over his own succession. He fled to Persia, where he spent nearly ten years as anhumiliated guest of the Safavid court of Shah Tahmasp. During Sher Shah's reign, an imperial unification and administrative framework were established; this would be further developed by Akbar later in the century. In 1545, Humayun gained a foothold in Kabul with Safavid assistance and reasserted his Indian claims, a task facilitated by the weakening of Afghan power in the area after the death of Sher Shah Suri in May 1545. He took control of Delhi in 1555, but died within six months of his return, from a fall down the steps of his library. Sway of Akbar Humayun's premature death in 1556 leftward the task of takeover and magnificentamalgamation to his thirteen-year-old son, Jalal-ud-Din Akbar. Following a decisive military victory at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, the regent Bayram Khan pursued a vigorous policy of expansion on Akbar's behalf. As soon as Akbar came of age, he began to free himself from the influences of overbearing ministers, court factions, and harem intrigues, and demonstrated his own capacity for judgment and leadership. A workaholic who seldom slept more than three hours a night, he personally oversaw the implementation of his administrative policies, which were to form the backbone of the Mughal Empire for more than 200 years. He continued to conquer, annex, and consolidate a far-flung territory bounded by Kabul in the northwest, Kashmir in the north, Bengal in the east, and beyond the Narmada River in central India. Akbar assembled a enveloped capital called FatehpurSikri  near Agra, starting in 1571. Strongholds for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in FatehpurSikri was inadequate or of poor quality; or, as some historians believe, that Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death. Akbar adopted two distinct but effective approaches in administering a large territory and incorporating various ethnic groups into the service of his realm. In 1580 he obtained local revenue statistics for the previous decade in order to understand details of productivity and price fluctuation of different crops. Aided by Todar Mal, a hindu scholar, Akbar issued a revenue schedule that optimised the revenue needs of the state with the ability of the peasantry to pay. Revenue demands, fixed according to local conventions of cultivation and quality of soil, ranged from one-third to one-half of the crop and were paid in cash. Akbar relied heavily on land-holding zamindars to act as revenue-collectors. They used their considerable local knowledge and influence to collect revenue and to transfer it to the treasury, keeping a portion in return for services rendered. Within his administrative system, the warrior aristocracy (mansabdars) held ranks (mansabs) expressed in numbers of troops, and indicating pay, armed contingents, and obligations. The warrior aristocracy was generally paid from revenues of nonhereditary and transferable jagirs (revenue villages). An astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so vast an empire, Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and assimilation of Hindus (including Jodhabai, later renamed Mariam-uz-Zamani begum, the Hindu mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the majority of the population. He recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the highest ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages between Mughal and Rajput aristocracy; allowed new temples to be built; personally participated in celebrating Hindu festivals such as Deepavali, or Diwali, the festival of lights; and abolished the jizya (poll tax) imposed on non-Muslims. Akbar came up with his own theory of "rulership as a divine illumination," enshrined in his new religion Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), incorporating the principle of acceptance of all religions and sects. He encouraged widow re-marriage, discouraged child marriage, outlawed the practice of sati, and persuaded Delhi merchants to set up special market days for women, who otherwise were secluded at home. By the end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout north India even south of the Narmada river. Notable exceptions were Gondwana in central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast, and large parts of the Deccan. The area south of the Godavari river remained entirely out of the ambit of the mughals. In 1600, Akbar's Mughal empire had a revenue of £17.5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire treasury of Great Britain totaled £16 million. Akbar's empire supported vibrant intellectual and cultural life. The large imperial library included books in Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmiri, English, and Arabic, such as the Shahnameh, Bhagavata Purana and the Bible. Akbar regularly sponsored debates and dialogues among religious and intellectual figures with differing views, and he welcomed Jesuit missionaries from Goa to his court. Akbar directed the creation of the Hamzanama, an artistic masterpiece that included 1400 large paintings. Reigns of Jahangir and Shah Jahan Mughal rule under Jahangir (1605–27) and Shah Jahan (1628–58) was noted for political stability, brisk economic activity, beautiful paintings, and monumental buildings. Jahangir married a Persian princess whom he renamed NurJehan (Light of the World), who emerged as the most powerful individual in the court besides the emperor. As a result, Persian poets, artists, scholars, and officers--including her own family members--lured by the Mughal court's brilliance and luxury, found asylum in India. The number of unproductive officers mushroomed, as did corruption, while the excessive Persian representation upset the delicate balance of impartiality at the court. Jahangir liked Hindu festivals but promoted mass conversion to Islam; he persecuted the followers of Jainism and even executed Guru ArjunDev, the fifth saint-teacher of the Sikhs in 1606 for refusing to make changes to the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book). The execution was not entirely for religious reasons; Guru ArjunDevJi supported Prince Khusro, another contestant to the Mughul throne in the civil war that developed after Akbar's death. Noor Jahan's abortive efforts to secure the throne for the prince of her choice led Shah Jahan to rebel against Jahangir in 1622. In that same year, the Persians took over Kandahar in southern Afghanistan, an event that struck a serious blow to Mughal prestige. Between 1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent Mughal armies to conquer the Deccan and the lands to the northwest of the empire, beyond the Khyber Pass. Even though they aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, these campaigns drained the imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine, causing the nobles and their contingents to multiply almost fourfold, the demands for revenue from the peasantry were greatly increased. Political unification and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts--such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmadabad--linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports. The world-famous TajMahal was built in Agra during Shah Jahan's reign as a tomb for his beloved wife, MumtazMahal. It symbolizes both Mughal artistic achievement and excessive financial expenditures at a time when resources were shrinking. The economic positions of peasants and artisans did not improve because the administration failed to produce any lasting change in the existing social structure. There was no incentive for the revenue officials, whose concerns were primarily personal or familial gain, to generate resources independent of what was received from the Hindu zamindars and village leaders, who, due to self-interest and local dominance, did not hand over the entirety of the tax revenues to the imperial treasury. In their ever-greater dependence on land revenue, the Mughals unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the break-up of their empire. Reign of Aurangzeb and decline of empire The last of the great Mughals was Aurangzeb. During his fifty-year reign, the empire reached its greatest physical size but also showed unmistakable signs of decline. The bureaucracy had grown corrupt; the huge army used outdated weaponry and tactics. Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance and expanded power southward, at least for a while. Aurangzeb was involved in a series of protracted wars: against the Pathans in Afghanistan, the sultans of Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, the Marathas in Maharashtra and the Ahoms in Assam. Peasant uprisings and revolts by local leaders became all too common, as did the conniving of the nobles to preserve their own status at the expense of a steadily weakening empire. The increasing association of his government with Islam further drove a wedge between the ruler and his Hindu subjects. Contenders for the Mughal throne were many, and the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were short-lived and filled with strife. The Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as regional nawabs or governors broke away and founded independent kingdoms. In the war of 27 years from 1680 to 1707, the Mughals suffered several heavy defeats at the hands of the Marathas. They had to make peace with the Maratha armies, and Persian and Afghan armies invaded Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the Peacock Throne in 1739. The first Mughal emperor Babur wrote in his diary TuzkBabri: "Hindustan is a country which has few pleasures to recommend it.... Indians have no idea of the charms of friendly society, of frankly mixing together, or of familiar intercourse.... They have no horses, no good grapes, or musk melons, no good fruits, no ice or cold water, no good food or bread in their bazaars, no bath or colleges, no candles, no torches, not a candle stick." The Mughals were superior to their Indian counterparts in war but also considered themselves so culturally. They had taste for the fine things in life - for beautifully designed artifacts and the enjoyment and appreciation of cultural activities. However, the Hindus of India provided the Mughals with a richer philosophy and the plentiful spices and vegetarian options which were incorporated into modern Indian life. While the Mughals' superior position may have been appreciated, in reality, they probably borrowed as much as they gave. However, it could not be doubted that they introduced many changes to Indian society and culture, including: Centralized government which conveyedcollected many smaller kingdoms Delegated government with respect for human rights Persian art and culture amalgamated with native Indian art and culture Started new trade routes to Arab and Turk lands Mughal cuisine Urdu and Hindi languages were formed for common Muslims and Hindus correspondingly Periods of great religious broadmindedness A style of construction Landscape horticulture A system of education that took account of pupils' needs and culture

            In view of the above, it is evident that the Mughal Empire had continued its efforts to beautify this subcontinent in a significant manner by extending its pelf and power and knowledge based on modern thoughts and intellectuals. Not only in the field of science and technology but also in the overall atmosphere of the structural world, their achievements are ever memorable in the history of the world.

Starting MS Word

In this article, I will race through the basics of creating documents with Word - setting up the screen so we have on it what you need, entering the text of your document, moving the insertion point and selecting items, and using the different views that Word provides for working with your documents.

&  Starting  MS Word

&  Setting up the Word screen

&  Entering the text, graphics and frames, Soft return and hard return

&  Moving the Insertion point

&  Selecting items

&  Using Word's different views

&  Saving the document

&  Page setup

&  Writing date, time, and page number and document name

To start MS Word:

After opening the Computer, you will find the Start button on the taskbar, then you will click on the Programs, and you will then get the application to work.

From Programs, you will find a list of programs, then click  MS Word, and then you will go to the MS Word application package to work.

After opening Word, you will find a default settings screen. In this screen, you will set the zoom and then set the font style and font size. You can set with the help of the Standard toolbar, or for changing the size of the font, you can press Ctrl +] (for increasing one font size) and Ctrl +[ ( for decreasing one font size). If you find that there is no standard toolbar on the screen, then you have to set the toolbar as follows.

&  Click View menu

&  Click toolbars

&  Then click Standard Toolbar

 Or, in case of customising any kind of toolbar, you can bring/customise the toolbar from the view menu in this way. Suppose that any item of the standard toolbar or formatting toolbar is missing from the screen, you can bring that item back by following the rules.

&  Setting up the Zoom :

¨      Click view menu

¨      Click zoom

¨      Click the percentage bar, what percentage of the screen you would like to make it  ' visible' i.e. you may want to use zoom to enlarge or shrink the display.

Before you start working in word, you may want to customize your screen. At a minimum, consider maximizing the word window by clicking the document Maximize button. Once you've maximized the word window or the document window, word will replace the application Maximize button with an application re-store button or the document maximize button ; click a restore button to restore the button to its pre-maximized size.

&  Displaying and hiding the Rulers

 To help you position your text optimally on the page, word offers a horizontal ruler in Normal view and both horizontal and vertical rulers in page lay out view and print preview. You can either display the ruler on-screen or keep it hidden but available. To toggle the display of the ruler on and off, choose View, Click Ruler. To pop-up the horizontal ruler momentarily, move the insertion point to the thin bar at the top of the current document window. Then ruler will appear automatically. And the ruler will disappear when you move the insertion point away. To pop-up the vertical ruler in Page Layout View or Print Preview, move the insertion point  to the thin bar at the left edge of the current document window. The vertical ruler will appear automatically, and it will disappear when you move the insertion point away.

Note :  You cannot display the ruler continuously in one line lay out view, but you can pop-it up when you need it.

&  Working with Text, Graphics, and Text Boxes

As with most word-processing applications, the basic unit of Word is the paragraph. These aren't paragraphs as people generally understand them: A paragraph in word consists of a paragraph mark (made by pressing Enter] and any text, (or graphic), between it and the previous paragraph mark ( or the beginning of the document ). In other words, a paragraph consists of anything [text, a graphic, a space or even nothing at all ] that appears between two paragraph marks, up to and including the second paragraph mark.

This seems a strange way to describe it, but a paragraph mark with nothing between it and the previous paragraph mark is considered a full paragraph. You can treat each paragraph as a unit formatting with styles for moving and copying.

&  Entering text

To enter text in your document, simply position the insertion point where you want the text to appear and type it in. Word will automatically wrap text as it reaches the end of a line. Press Enter to start a new paragraph. If you want to move a new line without starting a new paragraph- for example, so there is no space between lines- press Shift+Enter to start a new line without the same paragraph. When you reach the end of a page, word will automatically break text onto the next page, if you , you can start a new page  at any point  by inserting  a page break. To do so, press Ctrl+ Enter.

&  Insert and Overtype Mode

Word offers two modes for adding text to your documents: Insert mode and Overtype mode. In insert mode (default mode ] , characters you type  are inserted into the text to the left of the insertion point, pushing any characters to the right of the insertion point farther to the right. If you want to replace existing text in insert mode, select the text using either the mouse or the key board and type  in the text you want to insert in its place. In insert mode, the OVR indicator on the status bar is dimmed. In overtype mode, any character you type replaces the character if any to the immediate right of the insertion point. When word is in Overtype mode, the OVR indicator on the status bar is active (darkened) . To toggle between Insert mode and overtype mode, double-click the OVR indicator on the status bar.

&  Moving the insertion point :

In word, you move the insertion point using either the mouse or the keyboard.

Using the Mouse:

To position the insertion point using the mouse, simply move the mouse pointer to where you want it and click. Use the vertical scroll bar or the roller on the IntelliMouse to move up and down through your document as you drag the box in the scroll bar in a multi-page document, word will display a small box showing you which page you are on, use the horizontal scroll bar to move from side to side as necessary.

Click the next page and previous page buttons to move to the next page and previous page, respectively. Make sure these buttons are black, which indicates that word is browsing by page. If they are blue, that means word is browsing by a different item, such as sections or comments. To reset word to browse by page, click the object browser button between next and previous buttons.

Using Keyboard shortcuts

Word offers a number of keystrokes and key combinations to move the insertion point swiftly through the document. Besides left arrow on the keyboard to move left one character, right arrow to move right to one character, Top arrow move up one line, and down arrow to move down one line, you can use Page Up and Page Down  Key , Ctrl + Home key is used to bring the insertion point to the beginning of the text and Ctrl+ End key is used to bring the insertion point to the end of the text.

The following keystrokes and combinations are used while working in Word Document.

Keystroke	Action
Ctrl + L	Left Alignment
Ctrl + R	Right Alignment
Ctrl + E	Center Alignment
Ctrl + J	Justified Alignment
Ctrl + right arrow	One word to the right
Ctrl + left arrow	One word to the left
Ctrl + top arrow	To the beginning of the current paragraph or ( if the insertion point is at the beginning of a paragraph ) to the beginning of the previous paragraph.
Ctrl + down arrow	To the beginning of the next paragraph
End	To the end of the current line.
Ctrl + End	To the end of the document
Home	To the start of the current line
Ctrl + Home	To the start of the document
PageUp	Up one screen's worth of text
Pagedown	Down one screen's worth of text
Ctrl+PageUp	To the first character on the current screen
Ctrl+PageDown	To the last character on the current screen
Alt + Shift +D	For date
Alt + Shift +T	For time
Ctrl +]	For increasing one font up
Ctrl + [	For decreasing one font down
Alt + Ctrl +I	Print preview
Alt +F4	To close the window
Ctrl+Enter	Page break
Shift + Enter	Beginning of the paragraph
Ctrl +N	For new document
Ctrl+O	For  opening the document
Ctrl+C	For copying the document
Ctrl +V	For paste the document
Ctrl +X	For cutting the document
Ctrl +Shift +>	To increase twice up of the font
Ctrl +Shift +<	Just reverse of the above ( To decrease twice down of the font )
Ctrl + Shift +	Superscript
Ctrl +=	Subscript A
Ctrl +A	To select the document
Ctrl +Z	To undo action
Ctrl +Y	To Redo action
Ctrl +P	Print
Ctrl +F	Find
Ctrl +H	Replace
Ctrl +B	Bold
Ctrl +I	Italic
Ctrl +U	Underlined
Ctrl+1	Single spacing
Ctrl+2	Double spacing
Ctrl+5	Multiple spacing
Ctrl +D	Font
Ctrl +G	Find and Replace/Go To
Ctrl +K	Insert and hyper link
Ctrl +M	Increase Indents
Ctrl +Q	Center alignment
Ctrl +T	Hanging Indents
Ctrl +W	To close the file
Alt +A	Table Menu
Alt +W	Window Menu
Alt +E	Edit Menu
Alt +T	Tools Menu
Alt +I	Insert Menu
Alt +F	File Menu
Alt +V	View Menu
Alt +O	Format Menu
Alt +H	Help Menu
Alt +Ctrl+ E	End Notes
Alt + Ctrl+O	On Line View
Alt + Ctrl +F	Foot Notes
Ctrl +N	For new document

For Creating file, the following are the rules :

Click File Menu, then New and then a new screen will appear, you will begin to type by using Key board within a definitive font size and font style and the document must be within the particular page setup where margins ( left, right, top, bottom) and paper orientation to be specified.

&  For Saving the new file

 Click the File Menu, and then Save, then you will find Save as Dialogue box, write a name restricted within 255 characters,  then the folders.

(under root folder, a sub folder as a folder and then Sub-sub folder as another folder) and then O.K/Enter.

For any change of the text, you then simply go to the file Menu and then go to the  Save Commands.

&  Rules for Opening files

First you open the document in which name the document is in the Computer.

Click File Menu, then Open Command, and then select the document according to the folders and O.K/Enter

&  Page Set Up

If you are going to print document, you need to see how it should appear on the page.  Page set up offers you to change margins, the paper size, the layout of the paper, and even which printer tray comes from.

Setting Margins

To set the margins for your document:

¨      Click the margin tab in the page set up dialog box.

¨      In the boxes for top, bottom, left and right margins, use the spinner arrow to enter the measurement you want for each margin, alternatively, type in a measurement

Setting Paper Size

Word lets you print on paper of various size, offering a Custom option to allow you to set a peculiar paper size of your own, in addition to the various standard paper and envelope sizes.

 To change the size of the paper you are printing on:

¨      Click the paper size tab of Page Set Up dialog box.

¨      In the paper size drop down list box:

¨      Choose the size of the paper you will be working with (for example, letter 8½ X 11inch).

¨      If you can’t find the width and height of paper you want, use the width and height boxes to set the width and height

 

Setting Paper Orientation

To change the orientation of the page you are working on:

v  Click the paper size tab of the page setup dialog box and ;

v  Choose portrait or landscape in the orientation group box.

Word handles by letting you know to divide documents into Sections, each of which can have different characteristics

&  Creating a Section

To create a section:

v  Place the insertion point where you want the new section to start.

v  Choose Insert-Break. Word will display the Break dialog box.

v  Choose the type of section break to insert by clicking one of the option buttons in the section break area.

v  Next page- Starts the section from the next page

v  Continuos-Start the section from the same page

v  Even page-Starts the section from the new even page

v  Odd page-Starts the section from the new odd page

&  Deleting a Section

To delete a section break, place the insertion point at the beginning of the section break and press the Delete Key

Rules for writing file name/ page no/ date/ time

Setting Up Of Headers and Footers

Headers and Footers give you an easy way to repeat identifying information on each page of your document. For example, in a header, you might include the title of a document and  the author, while in a footer you might include the file name, the date and the page number out of total number of pages in the document.

&  Setting Headers and Footers

To include a header in your document:

¨      Choose View-Header and Footer.  Word will display  the page in Page Layout View and will display the Header and Footer toolbar.

¨      Enter the text for the header in the header area at the top of the page.  Use the buttons on the Header and Footer toolbar to speed your work.

&  Animating Text

If you create fancy screen presentation, you might want to take a look at Word’s animation feature, which can make your text shimmer, sparkle or blink.

Place your insertion point where you want the animation to begin or select the text you want to animate.

¨      Choose Format Menu-Font.

¨      Select the Animation tab.

¨      Select the effect you want to use and click OK.

Notice that the preview box shows you the result of the selected animation.

For Documents printing :

Click File,

Then select the Print Command,

The print dialogue box will appear,

Then select the name of the printer where you will print, then

In the Page range:

Ø  All, for  printing  all pages

Ø  Current, for printing the current page only.

Ø  Page range, for printing the selected page only.

Ø  Number of copies and then OK/Enter.