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There is
no denying the fact that the Mughal Empire was a territory that at its furthermost
geographical extent ruled parts of what is todays Afghanistan, Pakistan and
most of the Indian Subcontinent, then known as Hindustan, between 1526 and
1707. The realm was established by the Timurid leader Babur in 1526, when
he overpowered Ibrahim Lodi, the last of the Delhi Sultans at the First
Battle of Panipat. The word "Mughal" has been derived from the Persian
word for "Mongol". The religion of the Mughals was Islam. The
territory was largely conquered by the Afghan Sher Shah Suri during the
time of Humayun, the second Mughal ruler, but under Akbar it grew significantly,
and sustained to grow until the end of Aurangzeb's rule. Jahangir, the son
of Akbar, ruled the empire between 1605–1627. In October 1627, Mughal
Emperor Shah Jahan, son of Jahangir, "succeeded to the throne", where he "inherited a
vast and rich empire" in India; and "at mid-century this was
perhaps the greatest empire in the world". Shah Jahan commissioned the
famous Taj Mahal (between 1630–1653), in Agra.
The
Mughals had faced inflexible antagonism from the Marathas, and after
Aurangzeb died in 1707, the territory started to decline in authentic
power, giving way to the rise of the Hindu Maratha Empire. The Mughals
however managed to sustain some accouterments of power in the India for
another 150 years. In 1739 it was crushed by an army from Persia led by
Nadir Shah. In 1756 a territorial army of Ahmed Shah Abdali took Delhi
again. The British territory finally dissolved it in 1857, without more ado
prior to which it existed only at the sufferance of the British East India companionship.
Practice
of Religion during Mughal empire
The
Mughal ruling class was liberal-minded Muslims, although most of the
subjects of the Empire were Hindu. Although Babur founded the Empire, the empire
remained unhinged (and was even exiled) until the reign of Akbar, who was
not only of liberal disposition but also intimately acquainted, since
birth, with the mores and traditions of India. Under Akbar's rule, the
court abolished the jizya (the poll-tax on non-Muslims) and abandoned use
of the lunar Muslim calendar in favor of a solar calendar more useful for
agriculture. One of Akbar's most unusual ideas regarding religion was
Din-i-Ilahi ("Faith-of-God" in English), which was an eclectic
mix of Hinduism, panthiestic versions of Sufi Islam, Zoroastrianism and
Christianity. It was proclaimed the state religion until his death. These
actions however met with stiff opposition from the Muslim clergy. However,
the orthodoxy regained influence only three generations later, with Aurangzeb,
known for upholding doctrines of orthodox Islam; this last of the Great
Mughals retracted nearly all the liberal policies of his forbears.
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The Great Mughal Emperors
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Emperor
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Reign start
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Reign end
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Babur
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1526
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1530
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Humayun
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1530
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1540
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Interregnum
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1540
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1555
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Humayun
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1555
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1556
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Akbar
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1556
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1605
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Jahangir
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1605
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1627
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Shah Jahan
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1627
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1658
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Aurangzeb
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1658
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1707
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Establishment of Babur’s territory
In near
the beginning of the 16th century, Muslim armies consisting of Mongol,
Turkic, Persian, and Afghan warriors invaded India under the leadership of
the Timurid prince Zahir-ud-Din-Mohammad Babur. Babur was the
great-grandson of Mongol conqueror Timur Lenk (Timur the Lame, from which
the Western name Tamerlane is derived), who had invaded India in 1398
before retiring to Samarkand who himself claimed descent from the Mongol
ruler, Genghis Khan. Babur was driven from Samarkand by the Uzbeks and
initially established his rule in Kabul in 1504. Later, taking advantage of
internal discontent in the Delhi sultanate under Ibrahim Lodi, and
following an invitation from Daulat Khan Lodi (governor of Punjab) and Alam Khan (uncle of the Sultan), Babur invaded India in
1526.
Babur, a
hardened military commander, entered India in 1526 with his well-trained
veteran army of 12,000 to meet the sultan's huge but unwieldy and disunited
force of more than 100,000 men. Babur defeated the Lodi sultan decisively
at the first Battle of Panipat. Employing gun carts, moveable artillery,
and superior cavalry tactics, Babur achieved a resounding victory and the
Sultan was killed. A year later (1527) he decisively defeated, at the
battle of Khanwa, a Rajput confederacy led by Rana Sanga of Chittor. A
third major battle was fought in 1529 when, at the battle of Gogra, Babur
routed the joint forces of Afghans and the sultan of Bengal. Babur died in
1530 at Agra before he could consolidate his military gains. He left behind
as his chief legacy a set of descendants who would fulfill his dream of
establishing an empire in the Indian subcontinent. Early Sikh Gurus'
perception of the Mughal Empire Babur's reign was witnessed by the first
Sikh Guru Nanak Dev Ji. His Raag Asa Guru records Nanak's observations and
thoughts in his poems. It says:
"Having
attacked Khuraasaan, Babar terrified Hindustan. The Creator Himself does
not take the blame, but has sent the Mugal as the messenger of death. There
was so much slaughter that the people screamed. Didn't You feel compassion,
Lord?" pg (360) On the condition of Hindu women in Babur's rule:
"Those
heads bejeweled with braided hair, with their parts tinted with vermilion -
those heads were shaved with scissors, and their throats were choked with
dust.They lived in palatial mansions, but now, they cannot even sit near
the palaces.... ropes were put around their necks, and their strings of
pearls were broken. Their wealth and youthful beauty, which gave them so
much pleasure, have now become their enemies. The order was given to the
soldiers, who dishonored them, and carried them away. If it is pleasing to
God's Will, He bestows greatness; if is pleases His Will, He bestows
punishment" pg(417-18) On the nature of Mughal rule under Babur:
"First,
the tree puts down its roots, and then it spreads out its shade above. The
kings are tigers, and their officials are dogs; they go out and awaken the
sleeping people to harass them. The public servants inflict wounds with
their nails. The dogs lick up the blood that is spilled." Source: Rag Malar,
(pg.1288) Strangely enough, the land on which the Sikh Golden temple now
stands, was actually donated by Mughal emperor Akbar.
Reign of
Humayun
When
Babur died, his son Humayun (1530–56) inherited a difficult task. He was
pressed from all sides by a reassertion of Afghan claims to the Delhi
throne and by disputes over his own succession. He fled to Persia, where he
spent nearly ten years as an embarrassed guest of the Safavid court of Shah
Tahmasp. During Sher Shah's reign, an imperial unification and
administrative framework were established; this would be further developed
by Akbar later in the century. In 1545, Humayun gained a foothold in Kabul
with Safavid assistance and reasserted his Indian claims, a task
facilitated by the weakening of Afghan power in the area after the death of
Sher Shah Suri in May 1545. He took control of Delhi in 1555, but died
within six months of his return, from a fall down the steps of his library.
Reign of
Akbar
Humayun's
untimely death in 1556 left the task of conquest and imperial consolidation
to his thirteen-year-old son, Jalal-ud-Din Akbar (r.1556–1605). Following a
decisive military victory at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556, the
regent Bayram Khan pursued a vigorous policy of expansion on Akbar's
behalf. As soon as Akbar came of age, he began to free himself from the
influences of overbearing ministers, court factions, and harem intrigues,
and demonstrated his own capacity for judgment and leadership. A workaholic
who seldom slept more than three hours a night, he personally oversaw the
implementation of his administrative policies, which were to form the
backbone of the Mughal Empire for more than 200 years. He continued to
conquer, annex, and consolidate a far-flung territory bounded by Kabul in
the northwest, Kashmir in the north, Bengal in the east, and beyond the
Narmada River in central India.
Akbar
built a walled capital called Fatehpur Sikri (Fatehpur means "town of
victory") near Agra, starting in 1571. Palaces for each of Akbar's
senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled
courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the
capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the
water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality; or, as
some historians believe, that Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of
his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. In 1599, Akbar
shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.
Akbar
adopted two distinct but effective approaches in administering a large
territory and incorporating various ethnic groups into the service of his
realm. In 1580 he obtained local revenue statistics for the previous decade
in order to understand details of productivity and price fluctuation of
different crops. Aided by Todar Mal, a hindu scholar, Akbar issued a
revenue schedule that optimised the revenue needs of the state with the
ability of the peasantry to pay. Revenue demands, fixed according to local
conventions of cultivation and quality of soil, ranged from one-third to
one-half of the crop and were paid in cash. Akbar relied heavily on
land-holding zamindars to act as revenue-collectors. They used their
considerable local knowledge and influence to collect revenue and to transfer
it to the treasury, keeping a portion in return for services rendered.
Within his administrative system, the warrior aristocracy (mansabdars) held
ranks (mansabs) expressed in numbers of troops, and indicating pay, armed
contingents, and obligations. The warrior aristocracy was generally paid
from revenues of nonhereditary and transferable jagirs (revenue villages).
An
astute ruler who genuinely appreciated the challenges of administering so
vast an empire, Akbar introduced a policy of reconciliation and
assimilation of Hindus (including Jodhabai, later renamed Mariam-uz-Zamani
begum, the Hindu mother of his son and heir, Jahangir), who represented the
majority of the population. He recruited and rewarded Hindu chiefs with the
highest ranks in government; encouraged intermarriages between Mughal and
Rajput aristocracy; allowed new temples to be built; personally
participated in celebrating Hindu festivals such as Deepavali, or Diwali,
the festival of lights; and abolished the jizya (poll tax) imposed on
non-Muslims. Akbar came up with his own theory of "rulership as a
divine illumination," enshrined in his new religion Din-i-Ilahi
(Divine Faith), incorporating the principle of acceptance of all religions
and sects. He encouraged widow re-marriage, discouraged child marriage,
outlawed the practice of sati, and persuaded Delhi merchants to set up
special market days for women, who otherwise were secluded at home.
By the
end of Akbar's reign, the Mughal Empire extended throughout north India
even south of the Narmada river. Notable exceptions were Gondwana in
central India, which paid tribute to the Mughals, Assam in the northeast
and large parts of the Deccan. The area south of the Godavari river
remained entirely out of the ambit of the mughals. In 1600, Akbar's Mughal
empire had revenue of £17.5 million. By comparison, in 1800, the entire
treasury of Great Britain totaled £16 million.
Akbar's
empire supported vibrant intellectual and cultural life. The large imperial
library included books in Hindi, Persian, Greek, Kashmiri, English, and
Arabic, such as the Shahnameh, Bhagavata Purana and the Bible. Akbar
regularly sponsored debates and dialogues among religious and intellectual
figures with differing views, and he welcomed Jesuit missionaries from Goa
to his court. Akbar directed the creation of the Hamzanama, an artistic
masterpiece that included 1400 large paintings.
Reigns
of Jahangir and Shah Jahan
Mughal
rule under Jahangir (1605–27) and Shah Jahan (1628–58) was well-known for
political stability, brisk economic activity, beautiful paintings, and
monumental buildings. Jahangir married a Persian princess whom he renamed
Nur Jehan (Light of the World), who emerged as the most powerful individual
in the court besides the emperor. As a result, Persian poets, artists,
scholars, and officers--including her own family members--lured by the
Mughal court's brilliance and luxury, found asylum in India. The number of
unproductive officers mushroomed, as did corruption, while the excessive
Persian representation upset the delicate balance of impartiality at the
court. Jahangir liked Hindu festivals but promoted mass conversion to
Islam; he persecuted the followers of Jainism and even executed Guru Arjun
Dev, the fifth saint-teacher of the Sikhs in 1606 for refusing to make
changes to the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy book). The execution was
not entirely for religious reasons; Guru Arjun Dev Ji supported Prince
Khusro, another contestant to the Mughul throne in the civil war that
developed after Akbar's death. Noor Jahan's abortive efforts to secure the
throne for the prince of her choice led Shah Jahan to rebel against
Jahangir in 1622. In that same year, the Persians took over Kandahar in
southern Afghanistan, an event that struck a serious blow to Mughal prestige.
Between
1636 and 1646, Shah Jahan sent Mughal armies to conquer the Deccan and the
lands to the northwest of the empire, beyond the Khyber Pass. Even though
they aptly demonstrated Mughal military strength, these campaigns drained
the imperial treasury. As the state became a huge military machine, causing
the nobles and their contingents to multiply almost fourfold, the demands
for revenue from the peasantry were greatly increased. Political
unification and maintenance of law and order over wide areas encouraged the
emergence of large centers of commerce and crafts--such as Lahore, Delhi,
Agra, and Ahmadabad--linked by roads and waterways to distant places and
ports.
The
world-famous Taj Mahal was built in Agra during Shah Jahan's reign as a
tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. It symbolizes both Mughal artistic
achievement and excessive financial expenditures at a time when resources
were shrinking. The economic positions of peasants and artisans did not
improve because the administration failed to produce any lasting change in
the existing social structure. There was no incentive for the revenue
officials, whose concerns were primarily personal or familial gain, to
generate resources independent of what was received from the Hindu
zamindars and village leaders, who, due to self-interest and local
dominance, did not hand over the entirety of the tax revenues to the
imperial treasury. In their ever-greater dependence on land revenue, the
Mughals unwittingly nurtured forces that eventually led to the break-up of
their empire.
Reign of
Aurangzeb and decline of empire
The last
of the great Mughals was Aurangzeb. During his fifty-year reign, the empire
reached its greatest physical size but also showed unmistakable signs of
decline. The bureaucracy had grown corrupt; the huge army used outdated
weaponry and tactics. Aurangzeb restored Mughal military dominance and
expanded power southward, at least for a while. Aurangzeb was involved in a
series of protracted wars: against the Pathans in Afghanistan, the sultans
of Bijapur and Golkonda in the Deccan, the Marathas in Maharashtra and the
Ahoms in Assam. Peasant uprisings and revolts by local leaders became all
too common, as did the conniving of the nobles to preserve their own status
at the expense of a steadily weakening empire.
The
increasing association of his government with Islam further drove a wedge
between the ruler and his Hindu subjects. Contenders for the Mughal throne
were many, and the reigns of Aurangzeb's successors were short-lived and
filled with strife. The Mughal Empire experienced dramatic reverses as
regional nawabs or governors broke away and founded independent kingdoms.
In the war of 27 years from 1680 to 1707, the Mughals suffered several
heavy defeats at the hands of the Marathas. They had to make peace with the
Maratha armies, and Persian and Afghan armies invaded Delhi, carrying away
many treasures, including the Peacock Throne in 1739.
The
first Mughal emperor Babur wrote in his diary Tuzk Babri: "Hindustan
is a country which has few pleasures to recommend it.... Indians have no
idea of the charms of friendly society, of frankly mixing together, or of
familiar intercourse.... They have no horses, no good grapes, or musk
melons, no good fruits, no ice or cold water, no good food or bread in
their bazaars, no bath or colleges, no candles, no torches, not a candle
stick." The Mughals were superior to their Indian counterparts in war
but also considered themselves so culturally. They had taste for the fine
things in life - for beautifully designed artifacts and the enjoyment and
appreciation of cultural activities. However, the Hindus of India provided
the Mughals with a richer philosophy and the plentiful spices and
vegetarian options which were incorporated into modern Indian life. While
the Mughals' superior position may have been appreciated, in reality, they
probably borrowed as much as they gave. However, it could not be doubted
that they introduced many changes to Indian society and culture, including:
- Centralized government which brought
together many smaller kingdoms
- Delegated government with respect
for human rights
- Persian art and culture amalgamated
with native Indian art and culture
- Started new trade routes to Arab and
Turk lands
- Mughalai cuisine
- Urdu and Hindi languages were formed
for common Muslims and Hindus respectively
- Periods of great religious tolerance
- A style of architecture
- Landscape gardening
- A system of education that took
account of
pupils' needs and culture
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